<p>The Vienna Woods  are forested highlands that form the northeastern foothills of the Northern Limestone Alps in the states of Lower Austria and Vienna. The 45 km long and 20 - wide range of hills is heavily wooded and a popular recreation area with the Viennese.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Vienna Woods are bounded by the rivers Triesting, Gölsen, Traisen and Danube, and are on the border of the Mostviertel and the Industrieviertel, two of the four quarters of Lower Austria. Reaching into the city of Vienna itself, they are a favourite outdoor destination for the densely populated area around the city.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The highest elevation in the Vienna Woods is Schöpfl at 893 m above sea level, the location of the Leopold Figl observatory. Important rivers in the Vienna Woods are the Wien, the Schwechat and the Triesting. The northeasternmost Leopoldsberg overlooking the Danube and the Vienna Basin forms the eastern end of the Alpine chain.</p><br>
<p>Even though the Vienna Woods are a protected landscape and important recreational area, they are threatened by urban sprawl. The Lainzer Tiergarten, an extensive park populated by wild boar and other woodland animals, as well as the Schwarzenbergpark, were created on the territory of the city of Vienna during the 19th century. The natural park Sandstein-Wienerwald is near Purkersdorf, some 20 km (12 mi) west of Vienna. There are also some caves, such as the Dreidärrischenhöhle ("cave of the three deaf men").</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountain ranges of the Vienna Woods are the transition between the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians, separated by the Danube and some tectonic lines near Vienna. The northern area is part of the Alps&#39; sandstone zone, while its south is part of the Northern Limestone Alps. In the east, the border is the thermal line, which forms a geological break line to the Viennese Basin. Beeches, oaks and hornbeams grow throughout the north of the Wienerwald forest; in the south are conifers, mostly pines and firs. The Föhrenberge (Pine Mountains) natural park is in the latter region.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Vienna Woods have probably been populated since the 8th century. Under the influence of the Avars, a Slavic population settled here after the Völkerwanderung, which may account for village names such as Döbling, Liesing or Gablitz. The Vienna Woods was a princely hunting ground, but from the 16th century onwards forestry was practised. From 1840 industrial development encouraged increased settlement of the area. In 1870, plans were brought forward to clear most of the forest, but this caused widespread public resistance, in which Josef Schöffel was one of the most important figures.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, the governors of the states of Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland signed the Vienna Woods Declaration to protect nature in the region.</p><br>
<p>The film actress Hedy Lamarr, in keeping with her request for when she died, had her ashes spread in the Vienna Woods.</p><br>
<p>The Ili River  is a river in northwestern China and southeastern Kazakhstan. It flows from the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture of the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region to the Almaty Province in Kazakhstan.</p><br>
<p>It is 1,439 km long, 815 km of which is in Kazakhstan. It takes its beginning in eastern Tian Shan from the Tekes and Kunges (or Künes) rivers. The Ili River drains the basin between the Tian Shan and the Borohoro Mountains to the north.</p><br>
<p>Flowing into Lake Balkhash, the Ili forms a large delta with vast wetland regions of lakes, marshes and thicket vegetation.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Earlier mentions of Ili river is in Mahmud al-Kashgaris dictionary of Turkic languages, the Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk, written in 1072–74. In the book, author defines: Ili, name of a river. Turkic tribes of Yaghma, Tokhsi and Chiglig live on its banks. Turkish countries regard the river as their Jayhoun (Amu Darya). The name is possibly originated from Uyghur word Il, means hook in English, resembling the rivers geographical shape.</p><br>
<h2>Chinese region</h2><br>
<p>The upper Ili Valley is separated from the Dzungarian Basin in the north by the Borohoro Mountains, and from the Tarim Basin in the south by the main range of the Tian Shan. This region was the stronghold of the Qing administration in Xinjiang in the late 18th and 19th centuries</p><br>
<p>it was occupied by Russia from 1871 to 1881, that is, from the Yaqub Beg rebellion until the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881).</p><br>
<p>Presently, the region forms part of Xinjiangs Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The main city of the region, Yining (Kulja), is located on the northern side of the river some 100 km upstream from the international border. Until the early 1900s, the city was commonly known under the same name as the river, 伊犁 (Pinyin: Yīlí; Wade-Giles: Ili). On the southern side, even closer to the international border, Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County is located, which is home to many of the Chinas Xibe people, who were resettled to this borderland in the 18th century as part of the Manchu garrison.</p><br>
<p>There are at least two dams on the Ili&#39;s right tributary, the Kash River (喀什河) in Nilka County, at</p><br>
<h2>Kazakh region</h2><br>
<p>The region of Kazakhstan partially drained by the Ili and its tributaries is known in Kazakh as Zhetysu (&#39;Seven Rivers&#39;) and in Russian as Semirechye (meaning the same).</p><br>
<p>The Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was constructed between 1965 and 1970 near Kapchagay in the middle reaches of the Ili River, forming the Kapchagay Reservoir&mdash;an artificial 110 km long lake north of Almaty.</p><br>
<p>Tamgaly-Tas, some 20 km downstream along Ili River is the site of rock drawings. The name Tamgaly in Kazakh means "painted" or "marked place", Tas means "stone".</p><br>
<h2>Ili delta</h2><br>
<p>The Ili River discharges into the southeastern edge of Lake Balkhash, where it forms a large delta of about 8,000 km&sup2;. The delta is situated between the Saryesik-Atyrau Desert and the Taukum Desert. An area of 9,766 km (3,771 sq mi) within the delta has been designated as a Ramsar Site. This site has 427 species of plants and 345 species of animals, including important populations of rare species, like Dalmatian pelican, goitered gazelle, marbeled polecat, white-headed duck, red-breasted goose, and ship sturgeon. The delta has also become known for its Wels catfish, which can grow to over 300 lb. The Government of Kazakhstan plans to join the three sanctuaries Balkash, Karoy and Kukan, which are situated in the delta, into one National Park. Until 1948 the delta was a refuge of the extinct Caspian tiger. An introduction of the Siberian tiger to the delta has been proposed because it is the genetically closest relative of the Caspian tiger. A large population of wild boar, the main prey base of the Caspian tiger, can be still found in the delta. There is also a small population of roe deer and in the drier steppes to the south of the delta live saiga antelopes and goitered gazelles. Reintroduction of the Bactrian deer is under consideration as it was another important prey of the Caspian tiger. Another potential prey species is the extirpated Asiatic wild ass which could be reintroduced in the steppes adjoining the delta.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>* Charyn River, famous for its canyon</p><br>
<p>* Kash River</p><br>
<p>* Tekes River</p><br>
<h2>Historical connections</h2><br>
<p>The Ili River gave its name to the Ili River treaty of 638 AD, which formalized the division of the Western Turkic Kaganate (552–638 AD) into the Nushibi and the Dulu, and established the Ili River as the border between the two states.</p><br>
<p>In the 21st century, increasing need for water in both China and Kazakhstan makes the management of the cross-border Ili River a topic of concern for environmentalists and politicians in Kazakhstan, who feel that their country may not get enough water flowing in from China any more.</p><br>
<p>Gargalianoi  is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Trifylia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 122.680 km. It is situated 4 km from the Ionian Sea coast, 18 km north of Pylos, 21 km south of Kyparissia and 43 km west of Kalamata. The Greek National Road 9  passes through the town.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Gargalianoi is subdivided into the following communities:</p><br>
<p>Floka</p><br>
<p>Gargalianoi</p><br>
<p>Lefki</p><br>
<p>Marathopoli</p><br>
<p>Mouzaki</p><br>
<p>Pyrgos</p><br>
<p>Valta</p><br>
<h2>Famous inhabitants</h2><br>
<p>Theodore Spiros Agnew, father of United States Vice President Spiro Agnew</p><br>
<p>Tellos Agras, Officer of the Hellenic Army during the Greek Struggle for Macedonia</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>The Luberon  is a massif in central Provence in the south of France. It has a maximum altitude of 1,256 m and an area of about 600 km&sup2;. It is composed of three mountain ranges:  the Lesser Luberon , the Greater Luberon  and the Eastern Luberon . The valleys north and south of them contain a number of towns and villages as well as agricultural land.</p><br>
<p>The total number of inhabitants varies greatly between winter and summer, due to a massive influx of tourists during the warm season.</p><br>
<p>It is a favourite destination for French high society and British and American visitors because of the pleasant and picturesque towns and villages, comfortable way of life, agricultural wealth, historical and cultural associations (e.g., Samuel Beckett lived in Cave Bonelly, a vineyard near to Roussillon, during World War II), and hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, people came from all over France to the Luberon in search of a communitarian ideal.</p><br>
<p>The Force de frappe or French strategic nuclear arsenal used to be nearby, underground, on the Plateau dAlbion before being dismantled in the late 1980s. Now, the underground site where the missile controls were located is a public multidisciplinary laboratory of the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, the Low Noise Underground Laboratory (LSBB) of Rustrel, Pays dApt.</p><br>
<p>In the last two decades the Luberon has become known in the English-speaking world especially through a series of books by British author Peter Mayle chronicling his life as an expatriate settled in the Luberon village of Ménerbes. These are titled A Year in Provence, Toujours Provence, and Encore Provence. Another of Mayle&#39;s books, a novel set in the Luberon, was made into a film called A Good Year (2006) directed by Ridley Scott, starring Russell Crowe and filmed in the region.</p><br>
<p>The Luberon is often incorrectly advertised as the Lubéron (with an acute accent on top of the "e") in an effort to attract foreign tourists and local Parisians, although some dictionaries justify that the two spellings are interchangeable.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Luberon is particularly rich in biological diversity. There are known to be around 1,500 species of plants, accounting for 30% of the flora and fauna in France, 17,000 species and sub-species of insects with almost 2,300 species of Lepidoptera, or nearly 40% of species living in France, 341 species and subspecies of vertebrate wildlife, 135 species of birds and 21 species of bats or 70% of species present in France. Among the 1,500 different species of plants, there are 700 species and sub-species of higher plants and 200 species of lichens. Rich fossil deposits are also preserved here, documenting for example ancient species related to songbirds, as well as an ancestral pelican.</p><br>
<h2>Communes in the Parc naturel régional du Luberon</h2><br>
<h3>In Vaucluse</h3><br>
<p>Ansouis</p><br>
<p>Apt, small town near the eastern end of the Luberon valley</p><br>
<p>La Bastide-des-Jourdans</p><br>
<p>La Bastidonne</p><br>
<p>Beaumettes</p><br>
<p>Beaumont-de-Pertuis</p><br>
<p>Bonnieux</p><br>
<p>Buoux</p><br>
<p>Cabrières-d&#39;Aigues</p><br>
<p>Cadenet</p><br>
<p>Caseneuve</p><br>
<p>Cavaillon, small town at the western entrance to the Luberon valley</p><br>
<p>Cheval-Blanc</p><br>
<p>Cucuron</p><br>
<p>Gargas</p><br>
<p>Gordes</p><br>
<p>Goult</p><br>
<p>Grambois</p><br>
<p>Joucas</p><br>
<p>Lacoste</p><br>
<p>Lagarde-d&#39;Apt</p><br>
<p>Lauris</p><br>
<p>Lioux</p><br>
<p>Lourmarin</p><br>
<p>Maubec</p><br>
<p>Ménerbes</p><br>
<p>Mérindol</p><br>
<p>Mirabeau</p><br>
<p>Murs</p><br>
<p>Oppède</p><br>
<p>Pertuis</p><br>
<p>Peypin-d&#39;Aigues</p><br>
<p>Puget</p><br>
<p>Puyvert</p><br>
<p>Robion</p><br>
<p>Roussillon</p><br>
<p>Rustrel</p><br>
<p>Saignon</p><br>
<p>Saint-Martin-de-Castillon</p><br>
<p>Saint-Martin-de-la-Brasque</p><br>
<p>Saint-Pantaléon</p><br>
<p>Saint-Saturnin-lès-Apt</p><br>
<p>Sannes</p><br>
<p>Taillades</p><br>
<p>La Tour-d&#39;Aigues</p><br>
<p>Vaugines</p><br>
<p>Viens</p><br>
<p>Villars</p><br>
<p>Villelaure</p><br>
<p>Vitrolles-en-Luberon</p><br>
<h3>In Alpes-de-Haute-Provence</h3><br>
<p>Aubenas-les-Alpes</p><br>
<p>La Brillanne</p><br>
<p>Céreste</p><br>
<p>Dauphin</p><br>
<p>Forcalquier</p><br>
<p>Limans</p><br>
<p>Lurs</p><br>
<p>Manosque</p><br>
<p>Montfuron</p><br>
<p>Montjustin</p><br>
<p>Niozelles</p><br>
<p>Oppedette</p><br>
<p>Pierrerue</p><br>
<p>Pierrevert</p><br>
<p>Reillanne</p><br>
<p>Revest-des-Brousses</p><br>
<p>Saint-Maime</p><br>
<p>Saint-Martin-les-Eaux</p><br>
<p>Saint-Michel-l&#39;Observatoire</p><br>
<p>Sainte-Tulle</p><br>
<p>Vachères</p><br>
<p>Villemus</p><br>
<p>Villeneuve</p><br>
<p>Volx</p><br>
<h2>The "Golden Triangle" of Luberon</h2><br>
<p>Bonnieux, village on the border between the Little and Big Luberon</p><br>
<p>Gordes, facing the Luberon, this village is considered the top of the Golden Triangle (the base being made by the Little Luberon mountains)</p><br>
<p>Goult, perched on a hill in the middle of the valley of the Luberon.</p><br>
<p>Lacoste and the ancient castle of the uncle of "le Marquis de Sade"</p><br>
<p>Ménerbes</p><br>
<p>Oppède with its historic section perched on the hillside Oppéde-le-Vieux</p><br>
<p>Roussillon, like Goult, perched on a hill within the Luberon valley</p><br>
<h3>Southern Luberon</h3><br>
<p>Lourmarin, village on the border between Little and Big Luberon</p><br>
<p>Cucuron</p><br>
<p>Pavillon de Galon</p><br>
<p>Didicas Volcano is an active volcanic island in the province of Cagayan in northern Philippines. The island, which was a submarine volcano and re-emerged from the sea in 1952, is 22 km NE of Camiguin Island, one of the Babuyan Islands in Luzon Strait. Before 1952, the volcano first breached the ocean surface in 1857.</p><br>
<h2>Physical Features</h2><br>
<p>Didicas is topped with a lava dome with an elevation of 228 m and a base diameter of 1,200 m at sea level. It is at the southern end of the Luzon Volcanic Arc, and like all the volcanoes in the Philippines, is part of the Pacific ring of fire.</p><br>
<h2>Eruption History</h2><br>
<p>There have been six historical eruptions recorded from the volcano since the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>1773: The first recorded submarine eruption from the volcano, on what was known as Didicas reefs of the Farallones.</p><br>
<p>1856 September or October: The first activity started as a column of "smoke" in between the two rocks well known to the locals, but no earthquakes were felt.</p><br>
<p>1857: The volcano erupted violently, attended by earthquakes, then broke the surface of the sea. From then to 1860, the volcano was constantly active and in four years had reached a height of 700 ft. The island was later washed out by the waves and disappeared beneath the sea.</p><br>
<p>1900: An eruption left three rock masses up to 82 ft high.</p><br>
<p>1952: The volcano broke the ocean&#39;s surface again during an eruption that started around March 16.</p><br>
<p>1953: The activities subsided. The resulting island is 1.5 mi wide with an elevation of 800 ft.</p><br>
<p>1969: First known fatalities from the volcano: three fishermen were killed while fishing near the volcano. The activity, which started on March 21, came from a new crater on the northern side of the island. Air reconnaissance over the volcano reported bubbling mud on the 20 m wide bottom of the crater. Activity on the volcano waned in June the same year.</p><br>
<p>1978 January 6 to 9: The last eruption of Didicas to date. The mild eruption blanketed the island with fresh volcanic ashes.</p><br>
<p>The Peaks of Otter are three mountain peaks in the Blue Ridge Mountains, overlooking the town of Bedford, Virginia, which lies nine miles  to the southeast along State Route 43. These peaks are Sharp Top, Flat Top, and Harkening Hill.</p><br>
<p>Manmade Abbott Lake lies in the valley between the three peaks, behind the Peaks of Otter Lodge and restaurant. The National Park Service preserves the peaks and lake as part of the Blue Ridge Parkway.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Jefferson once wrote that "the mountains of the Blue Ridge, and of these the Peaks of Otter, are thought to be of a greater height, measured from their base, than any others in our country, and perhaps in North America." Of course this later turned out not to be the case, but not before Virginia had sent stones from the peaks to be its part of the Washington Monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At milepost marker 86 of the Blue Ridge Parkway stands the Peaks of Otter. Archaeological evidence under Abbott Lake indicates that Native Americans have been visiting the Peaks of Otter for at least 8,000 years for hunting, travel, and rest. European settlers started establishing the area in the mid-1700s. In 1766 Thomas Wood and his family from Pennsylvania settled a homestead on the area; National Park Service documents indicate other early residents included brothers Charles and Robert Ewing, who are asserted by some to have named the Peaks after the Ewing surname as it is pronounced in Scottish Gaelic – Clann Eóghain na h-Oitrich, or "Clan Ewing of Otter." This view may be given credence by similarly Otter-themed place names in Scotland, and the resemblance of Flat Top to Beinn Dorain in the ancestral Ewing area of Argyll and Bute. Other theories for the naming off the Peaks of Otter include the anglicizing of the Cherokee word "Otari" meaning "high places" or the naming of the mountains after the Otter River, which starts nearby and presumably got named for otters downstream.</p><br>
<p>In 1834 the first local inn was created by Polly Wood, a widower who opened an "Ordinary" in her log cabin where settlers could stay the night and get a warm meal. By the 1870s, Benjamin Wilkes had opened the famous Mons Hotel, and the Peaks of Otter was home to over 20 families, a school, a church, and the hotel. One of the families included the Johnson family, which lived for 3 generations until the 1930s on the now-preserve Johnson farmstead. By the early 1900&#39;s the Peaks of Otter became a popular local tourist spot and became especially noticed by the National Park Service. Abbott Lake, the lake at the base of the peaks, was man made and created in 1964 along with the official Peaks of Otter Lodge, which still stands today.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>The primary activity at Peaks of Otter is hiking. There are three main peaks; Flat Top, Sharp Top, and Harkening Hill in order from highest peak altitude to lowest peak altitude. Sharp Top is the most famous hike with its spectacular 360° view at the top. There is also a separate cliff formation on the other side of Sharp Top called Buzzard’s Roost, which also has good views. For those who cannot hike 1.5 mile and 1,300 ft elevation gain trail up to the top of Sharp Top, there is a shuttle service that people up to within a 15 minute walk from the top. Combined within the three peaks is a little over 12 miles of hiking and extra attractions along the way. There is a flat, one-mile paved trail around Abbott Lake along with a 1.6-mile-loop trail to a waterfall roughly 2 miles north on the Blue Ridge Parkway. Johnson Farm is a historically restored site along one of the side trails towards Harkening Hill. The house and outbuildings are preserved in their 1930&#39;s form along with gardens and a small orchard. Visitors can take free tours of the farmhouse from June-September. From June-October the National Park Service provides various Ranger programs. There is also a small visitor center run by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>Lodging includes the Peaks of Otter Lodge and the Peaks of Otter campground. There is also a large picnic area with outdoor grills.</p><br>
<p>From atop the peaks the very close town of Bedford can be seen within eyesight. On the summit of the far side of the main peak; Sharp Top, there is a famed crash site of a World War II B-25 bomber that crashed into the side of the mountain during a training exercise. The wreckage was never removed, as it is too heavy and the side of the mountain it crashed on is too steep to work on. There is a small memorial on a rock at the top of the site for the crew that died, it is a hike off trail, but the majority of the plane can still be found along the mountain with bigger parts further down as you go over an estimated area of 500x600 feet. There is also a bigger, more put-together World War II Memorial in nearby Bedford. This memorial is a D-Day memorial dedicated to all men who died in the Normandy landings, but especially to the ones from Bedford, who had the highest percentage of men killed in the initial landings, the most out any other single area in the whole country. You can also visit the orchards and vineyards of the descendants of the historic Peaks of Otter Johnson and Gross families. These families had apple orchards on the Peaks of Otter back in the 1800s and early 1900s and now have Gross Orchard and Peaks of Otter Winery halfway between the Peaks of Otter and Bedford.</p><br>
<p>The Arrow River is a short river in Otago, New Zealand. It is a tributary of the Kawarau River, which in turn feeds into the Clutha. The town of Arrowtown lies on the Arrow. A very small amount of gold was discovered by Jack Tewa in the Arrow River in August 1862. In early October much larger finds were made by John McGregor and Peter Stewart of the McGregor and Low party and by William Fox. They disagreed over who found gold there first. It was an important part of the Central Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s.</p><br>
<p>The scene where Arwen challenged the Nazgûl while rushing Frodo to Rivendell was shot at this location for Peter Jackson&#39;s The Lord of the Rings film trilogy.</p><br>
<p>The river was originally called Haihainui- big scratches- by Māori who used to visit this area during summer for seasonal hunting (of birds) and gathering (of pounamu - greenstone).</p><br>
<p>Swildon&#39;s Hole is an extensive cave in Priddy, Somerset. At 9,144 m in length, it is the longest cave on the Mendip Hills. It has been found to be connected to Priddy Green Sink and forms part of the Priddy Caves Site of Special Scientific Interest .</p><br>
<p>The upper series of the cave compresses many features into a relatively short space. The cave goes far beyond this, however, and the lower reaches of the cave continue to provide challenges for even the most experienced of cave divers.</p><br>
<p>The name may be a corruption of Swithun, an Anglo-Saxon bishop of Winchester, as the land in the area was owned by St Swithin&#39;s Priory in Winchester.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cave was first entered on 16 August 1901 by members of the Wells Natural History and Archaeological Society. Very rapid progression was made to what is now known as the 40 foot pot. Between 1903 and 1910, in spite of access being banned by the landowner, various trips took place to photograph and explore the passages.</p><br>
<p>In 1914 the limit of exploration was extended to Twenty Foot Pot, and in 1921 the first of the sumps was reached, but not passed (despite attempts to make progress by blasting). Sump 1 was finally successfully dived in 1936, and Sump 2 was passed soon afterwards. By this point a length of cave only one-fifth of the amount known today had been discovered.</p><br>
<p>Ever since 1936 caving groups have been seeking to extend the explored area of the cave, and thus far eleven principal sumps have been passed. Sump 12 has so far proved impassable. Work continues to find a way through the adjacent Sump 12b.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The entrance to Swildon&#39;s Hole is now a small triangular opening contained within a stone blockhouse in a clump of trees 550 m north-east of Manor Farm, Priddy.</p><br>
<p>Swildon&#39;s Hole is a very popular cave and there are often several separate groups underground at the same time.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The cave contains an active streamway, which has caused a highly varied cave system. Areas of the system range from low passages, through which cavers must crawl, to impressive chambers with sheer drops, and from dry fossil passages to thundering waterfalls and its infamous sumps. A plaque mounted on a stone plinth near Priddy village green shows a plan of the cave, overlaying a map of the village (see right).</p><br>
<p>Only a handful of the 11 principal sumps thus far passed can be dived without dedicated equipment (free-dived).</p><br>
<p>The length of cave between the sumps are known by the number of the sump at the end of the stretch; thus the stretch between the entrance and Sump 1 is known as Swildons One, between Sumps 1 and 2 as Swildons Two, and so on.</p><br>
<p>Sump 4 can be reached without going through Sumps 1 to 3, via Tratman&#39;s Temple, Mud Sump, Fault Chamber and Blue Pencil Passage; parts of this route are extremely difficult.</p><br>
<p>The connection between Swildon&#39;s Hole and Priddy Green Sink was the first major through route discovered on the Mendip Hills. Following a number of months of digging and blasting, the link was made in 1996 at the top of the Cowsh Avens Series, a 120 m climb above Sump 4.</p><br>
<p>The water in the cave resurges in Wookey Hole Caves. This was first demonstrated (by pouring dye into the water) by Graham Balcombe and Jack Sheppard of the Cave Diving Group, who first passed Sumps 1 and 2 in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Jengish Chokusu  is the highest mountain in the Tian Shan mountain system at 7,439 m. It lies on the Kyrgyzstan–China border, in the Kakshaal Too, the highest part of the Tien Shan, southeast of lake Issyk Kul.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The mountains official name in Kyrgyz is Jengish Choqusu, which means "Victory Peak&quot its Russian name is Pik Pobedy (or Peak Pobeda) meaning the same. In Uyghur, it is called Tömür, which is also the official name of the mountain in China. The Chinese name Tuōmùěr Fēng is a combination of the Uighur tomur, meaning iron and Chinese feng meaning peak.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Jengish Chokusu is a massif, with several summits along its lengthy ridge. Only its main summit breaks 7,000 m. It is located 16 km southwest of Khan Tengri (7,010 m / 22,998 ft), separated by the South Engilchek glacier, where base camps for both mountains are usually located. The massif runs at right angles to the glaciers which flow from it into three alpine valleys in Kyrgyzstan on the north, all eventually running to the Engilchek Glacier, the largest in the Tian Shan. Its main summit is usually approached from the Zvozdochka (Russian for "little star") glacier, which is coloured red with rocks from Jengish Chokusu.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the Kyrgyzstan side of the mountain is in the Ak-Suu District of Issyk-Kul Region, and the Chinese side, in Wensu County of the Aksu Prefecture of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.</p><br>
<h2>Records</h2><br>
<p>Jengish Chokusu is the highest mountain in Kyrgyzstan. Jengish Chokusu is considered the most northerly 7,000-metre mountain in the world by geologists; the actual rock summit of Khan Tengri, the Tian Shan&#39;s third highest peak, is 6,995m above sea level, though a thick layer of ice adds another 15m to its altitude, such that mountaineers classify it as 7,000m peak.</p><br>
<p>The South Engilchek Glacier and its side glaciers occupy the entire north side of Peak Jengish Chokusu. This glacier, currently at 60.5 km in length, is the sixth longest outside of the world&#39;s polar regions.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although Jengish Chokusu is over 400 metres higher, Khan Tengri was believed to be the highest peak in the range until Jengish Chokusus survey in 1946. A Soviet expedition mounted in 1938 to mark the 20th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Youth movement Komsomol claimed to have climbed the highest peak in the area, the summit being reached on September 19 by L.Gutman, E.Ivanov and A.Sidorenko. They measured the altitude as 6900 meters, and named the peak Pik 20-ti letiya Komsomola (Peak of the 20th Anniversary of Komsomol). A survey by another team in 1943 found the peak to be 7439 meters high. The peak was renamed as Pik Pobedy (Victorys Peak) in 1946 to commemorate the Soviet victory in World War II. The significant difference in altitude led to the 1938 ascent being called into question, although the official Soviet stand was to uphold the 1938 ascent. A large-scale attempt on the peak in 1955 was disastrous, when 11 expedition members were killed in a blizzard. Jengish Chokusus first indisputably verified ascent was in 1956 by Vitaly Abalakovs party. A Chinese expedition climbed the peak from the Chinese side in 1977: the expedition book makes no mention of the Russian first ascent and gives the impression that the Chinese ascent was the first climb. The first winter ascent of the peak was made by Valery Khrichtchatyi in February 1990.</p><br>
<p>Filiatra , is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Trifylia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 114.877 km. Filiatra is situated near the Ionian Sea coast in western Messenia. It is located 11 km northwest of Gargalianoi, 13 km southwest of Kyparissia, 29 km northwest of Pylos and 49 km west of Kalamata. The Greek National Road 9  passes through the town. Filiatra was founded around the 12th and the 13th centuries. It was built near the site of the ancient city Erana. Filiatra has several schools, churches and shops. A scaled reproduction of the Eiffel Tower stands at the entrance to the village. The local soccer club is Erani Filiatra.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Filiatra is subdivided into the following communities (2011 population in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Chalazoni (154)</p><br>
<p>Christianoupoli (302)</p><br>
<p>Exochiko (179)</p><br>
<p>Filiatra</p><br>
<p>Mali (17)</p><br>
<p>Plati (71)</p><br>
<p>The community Filiatra consists of the following settlements, besides the town Filiatra proper:</p><br>
<p>Agia Kyriaki</p><br>
<p>Agrilos</p><br>
<p>Kountri</p><br>
<p>Lagkouvardos - a beach area located near Agia Kyriaki</p><br>
<p>Lempestena</p><br>
<p>Limenari, the access from Filiatra to the sea. It is around 2 km from the center</p><br>
<p>Merolithi</p><br>
<p>Stomio</p><br>
<p>Vryses</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Famous people</h2><br>
<p>The Liberopoulos brothers:</p><br>
<p>Nikos Liberopoulos, soccer player</p><br>
<p>Sotiris Liberopoulos, soccer player</p><br>
<p>Nikolaos Frousos, soccer player</p><br>
<p>Pavlos Dionysopoulos, artist</p><br>
<p>Theodoros Marangos, Film Director</p><br>
<p>Navan Fort  is an ancient ceremonial monument near Armagh, Northern Ireland. According to tradition it was one of the great royal sites of pre-Christian Gaelic Ireland and the capital of the Ulaidh. It is a large circular hilltop enclosure—marked by a bank and ditch—inside which is a circular mound and the remains of a ring barrow. Archeological investigations show that there were once buildings on the site, including a huge roundhouse-like structure which has been likened to a temple. In a ritual act, this timber structure was filled with stones, deliberately burnt down and then covered with earth to create the mound which stands today. It is believed that Navan was a pagan ceremonial site and was regarded as a sacred space. It features prominently in Irish mythology, especially in the tales of the Ulster Cycle. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, "the of myth and legend is a far grander and mysterious place than archeological excavation supports".</p><br>
<p>Navan Fort is the heart of the larger Navan complex, which also includes the ancient sites of Haugheys Fort (an earlier hilltop enclosure), the Kings Stables (a manmade ritual pool) and Loughnashade (a lake which has yielded votive offerings).</p><br>
<p>The name Eamhain Mhacha has been interpreted as "Machas twins" or "Machas brooch", referring to a local goddess. Navan is an anglicisation of the Irish An Eamhain.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Irish name of Navan Fort is Eamhain Mhacha, from Old Irish: Emain Macha. The second element refers to the goddess Macha, for whom nearby Armagh (Ard Mhacha) is also named. However, the overall meaning of the name is unclear. It has been interpreted as "Machas twins" or "Machas pair" (possibly referring to the two features on the hilltop, or to Navan Fort and another nearby monument), or as "Macha&#39;s brooch" (possibly referring to the shape of the monument). There are tales that try to explain how the name came about. In the 2nd century AD, Greek geographer Ptolemy noted a place called Isamnion somewhere in southeastern Ulster. Some scholars believe this refers to Emain, and Gregory Toner has derived it from Proto-Celtic *isa-mon ("holy mound"). Others believe it refers to a place on the coast.</p><br>
<p>Eamhain Mhacha, and its short form An Eamhain, was anglicised as Owenmagh, Nawan and eventually Navan.</p><br>
<h2>History and purpose</h2><br>
<p>Navan Fort, sometimes called Navan Rath, is a State Care Historic Monument in the townland of Navan. It is on a low hill about 1.6 miles (2.6 km) west of Armagh (at grid ref. area H847 452). The site consists of a circular enclosure 250 metres (820 ft) in diameter, marked by a large bank and ditch encircling the hill. The ditch is on the inside, suggesting the earthwork was symbolic rather than defensive. Inside the enclosure two monuments are visible. North-west of centre is an earthen mound 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter and 6 metres (20 ft) high. South-east of centre is the circular impression of a ring-barrow, about 30 metres (100 ft) in diameter.</p><br>
<p>Flint tools and shards of pottery show activity at the site in the Neolithic (c. 4000 to 2500 BC).</p><br>
<p>In the 8th century BC (Bronze Age), a ring of timber poles was raised at the western site, where the high mound now stands. It was 35m in diameter and surrounded by a ring ditch with an eastern entrance. This ditch was 45 metres (150 ft) in diameter, 5 metres (16 ft) wide and 1 metres (3 ft) deep. In the 4th century BC (Iron Age) a new wooden structure was built on the same spot. It was a round building attached to a bigger round enclosure, making a figure-of-eight shape, both with eastern entrances. The larger ring of the figure-of-eight was 30 metres (100 ft) in diameter, the smaller about 20 metres (65 ft). The smaller building had a hearth. The structure has been interpreted as a roundhouse with an attached yard or pen, or a building with an attached enclosure for rituals. Finds suggest that at this time the site was occupied by someone of high standing such as a king, chieftain or druid. They include a chape, a finely-decorated pin and the skull of a Barbary monkey, which was likely a pet that was either imported or given as a gift. The structure was rebuilt several times over the following centuries.</p><br>
<p>In the 1st century BC, a huge timber roundhouse-like structure was built on the same spot. It was 40 metres in diameter and consisted of an outer wall and four inner rings of posts (probably holding up a roof), which circled a huge central pillar.</p><br>
<p>Not long after it was built, the building was filled with thousands of stones, to a height of nearly 3 metres. The building was then deliberately burnt down before being covered in a mound of earth. It was made up of many soil types, suggesting that soil was brought from surrounding areas. There is archaeological evidence for similar repeated building and burning at Tara and Dún Ailinne.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that this sequence of events was a ritual act, but its meaning is unclear and there are several theories. The timber building may have been built only as a temporary structure to be burned, or it may have briefly served as a temple before its ritual destruction. It may be an attempt to replicate an ancient burial mound (sídhe), which were believed to be portals to the Otherworld and the homes of ancestral gods. He believes the mound was made as a platform on which druids would perform ceremonies and on which kings would be crowned, while drawing power and authority from the gods and ancestors. It is possible that each part of the monument represents something. The stones inside the wooden structure may represent souls in the house of the dead, or the souls of fallen warriors in their equivalent of Valhalla. Another theory is that the monument symbolizes a union of the three main classes of society: druids (the wooden frame), warriors (the stones) and farmers (the soil). The central pillar could also represent the world pillar or world tree linking the sky, the earth and the underworld. The radial pattern of the stone cairn may represent the sun wheel, a symbol associated with Celtic sun or sky deities. It is thought that the huge outer bank and ditch was made to mark out the hilltop as a sacred space. It could also have been seen as a way of containing the power of the Otherworld within that space. Dr Lynn writes: "It seems reasonable to suggest that, in the beginning of the first century BC, Navan was an otherworld place, the home of the gods and goddesses. It was a Celtic tribe&#39;s sanctuary, its capitol, its sacred symbol of sovereignty and cohesion".</p><br>
<p>In the 1st or 2nd century BC, a figure-of-eight structure was also built at the eastern site. It was similar to those at the western site and may have been built around the same time as the mound. The larger ring was 30 metres (100 ft) in diameter, the smaller about 20 metres (65 ft). This figure-of-eight structure was then cleared away and replaced by another round wooden structure. It was double-walled, had a central hearth and an eastern entrance. Two graves were found just outside the entrance. This structure was in turn replaced by a ring-barrow: a round mound, usually raised over a burial, surrounded by a ditch and bank.</p><br>
<p>Until 1985, the site was threatened by the growth of a nearby limestone quarry. Due mostly to the efforts of the activist group Friends of Navan, a public inquiry held that year halted further quarrying, and recommended that Navan be developed for tourism. A visitor centre, featuring artefacts and audio-visual exhibitions, was opened in 1993, but closed in 2001 for lack of funds. It reopened in 2005 after the site was bought by Armagh City and District Council.</p><br>
<p>Other significant prehistoric sites nearby include Haugheys Fort, an earlier Bronze Age hill fort two-thirds of a mile (1 km) to the west; the Kings Stables, a manmade pool also dating to the Bronze Age; and Loughnashade, a natural lake which has yielded Iron Age artefacts.</p><br>
<h2>In Irish mythology</h2><br>
<p>According to Irish mythology and historical tradition it was the capital of the Ulaidh, the people who gave their name to the province of Ulster. It was supposedly founded by the goddess Macha in the 7th or 5th century BC, and was the seat of Conchobar mac Nessa in the tales of the Ulster Cycle. Conchobar is said to have had three houses at Eamhain Mhacha:</p><br>
<p>the Cróeb Ruad ("Dark Red Branch", whence derives the nearby townland of Creeveroe) where the king sat</p><br>
<p>the Cróeb Derg ("Bright Red Branch"), where trophies of battle were kept, and</p><br>
<p>the Téte Brecc ("Speckled Hoard") where the warriors&#39; weapons were stored.</p><br>
<p>Many of the most famous names in Irish mythology are associated with Eamhain Mhacha and the Red Branch warriors.</p><br>
<p>Amergin the poet</p><br>
<p>Cú Chulainn, the great warrior</p><br>
<p>Emer, his strong-willed and beautiful bride</p><br>
<p>Conall Cernach (Conall the Victorious), his foster-brother and close friend</p><br>
<p>Lóegaire, another warrior</p><br>
<p>Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster</p><br>
<p>Cathbad, the chief druid</p><br>
<p>Fergus mac Róich, another great warrior and king</p><br>
<p>Deirdre of the Sorrows, the most beautiful woman in Ireland, and Naoise, her brave lover</p><br>
<p>Leabharcham, the wise woman</p><br>
<p>In mythology, the name Eamhain Mhacha is variously explained as "Machas twins" (so named because Macha gave birth to twins there after being forced to compete in a chariot-race while pregnant) or "Machas neck-brooch" (so named because Macha marked out the bounds of the site with her brooch). The Annals of the Four Masters record that it was abandoned after it was burnt by the Three Collas in 331 AD, after they had defeated Fergus Foga, king of Ulster, in battle at Achadh Leithdheirg.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Eamhain Mhacha is the name of an Irish traditional music group formed in 2008. Irish heavy metal band Waylander also has a song called "Emain Macha" on their 1998 album Reawakening Pride Once Lost.</p><br>
<p>"Emain Macha" is the name of a place in the computer games Dark Age of Camelot, Mabinogi and The Bard&#39;s Tale.</p><br>
<p>The Nevis River is in Otago, New Zealand. It flows north for 40 km through rough country before meeting the Kawarau River, of which it is a tributary. A prominent rock outcrop close to this junction is known as the Nevis Bluff.</p><br>
<p>The river was one of the sites of the Central Otago goldrush of the 1860s. Today, the region around the river is known for tourism and wine production. New Zealand&#39;s highest bungy jumping operation, the 134 m Nevis Highwire is above the river.</p><br>
<p>A Water Conservation Order protects the river for its wild and scenic character and for recreational use, especially fishing and kayaking. The Water Conservation Order made provision for damming the river for hydro-electric development. Fish and Game New Zealand applied to have this provision revoked and in 2013, after a public process with consideration by a special tribunal and the Environment Court, the Environment Minister decided to prevent damming of the river.</p><br>
<p>The Matukituki River is found in the Southern Alps of New Zealands South Island. Both the West Branch and the East Branch originate from the Main Divide mountain ranges near Mount Aspiring and their largely glacier-fed waters flow for approximately 20 km each before joining near Camerons Flat. After this confluence, the Matukituki River leaves the boundaries of Mount Aspiring National Park and continues for another 30 km until it drains into Lake Wanaka at the lakes southwestern edge.</p><br>
<p>A total of six glaciers feed tributary streams to the Matukituki River, the biggest of them being the Upper Volta Glacier, Rob Roy Glacier, Maud Francis Glacier, and Avalanche Glacier.</p><br>
<p>From Camerons Flat onwards, the river is increasingly braided until it passes through a narrow gorge and under the West Wanaka bridge just before reaching Lake Wanaka.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Most of the Southern Alps started over 220 million years ago as sediment and rock on top of volcanic rocks on the seafloor. Intense heat and pressure consolidated the rock, and then uplifted it to form the Main Divide. The present landscape was shaped by glacial processes during the ice ages, when huge glaciers filled and scoured out the valleys.</p><br>
<p>The area around Mount Aspiring (called Tititea by the Māori) has a long history of Māori tribes coming from as far as Coastal Otago and the Foveaux Strait to the inland lakes to collect kakapo, kereru, kākā and tui from the forest. Moa would have also been present along the forest edges for the first 200 years of Māori settlement.</p><br>
<p>The historic Māori iwi of Kāti Mamoe and Ngāi Tahu both had named settlements around the shores of Lakes Wanaka and Hāwea, including Nehenehe on the northern banks of the mouth of the Matukituki River. Ovens for cooking tī kōuka (cabbage tree) roots have been found at several sites on the lake shore.</p><br>
<p>The first European to see Mount Aspiring was government surveyor John Turnbull Thompson in 1857, and the West Matukituki Valley was explored by James Hector in 1862. Farming began progressing up the valley in the 1870s.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna and flora</h2><br>
<p>Today, beech is the dominant forest in the Matukituki Valley. Red beech prefers warmer valley sites, and is common just below Aspiring Hut. silver beech grows increasingly towards the wetter, western end of the valley, while mountain beech dominates the drier, eastern end. The understory of the typically open forests supports a variety of ferns and mosses. Above the tree line, at about 1,100 m, stunted, sub-alpine shrub land gives way to alpine tussock grasslands and fell fields.</p><br>
<p>Insect-eating birds such as fantail, tomtit and rifleman thrive in the beech forest, whereas the seed-eating kākāriki specifically prefers areas of red beech. Paradise shelduck thrive on the river flats, and in summer, spur-winged plover and oystercatcher are a common sight on farmland and along the drive from Wanaka.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The Matukituki River valley is home to a ski resort (Treble Cone), a jetboat operator (River Journeys) and numerous tramping (walking) trails providing access to most notably the Rob Roy Glacier and the Dart Saddle. The unsealed Wanaka Mount Aspiring Road follows the river&#39;s true right for most of its course, past the confluence of the East Branch and West Branch, and part-way along the West Branch to a Department of Conservation NZ car park at the Raspberry Creek shelter.</p><br>
<p>The most popular walk in the area is the Rob Roy Glacier walk, which leads up a side valley to a view point beneath Rob Roy Glacier. The walking track crosses the Matukituki River West Branch via a swing bridge.</p><br>
<p>Mali i Thatë is a mountain in southeast Albania and a part of it being in southwest of Macedonia  with the highest altitude of 2287 meters. It borders Lake Prespa in the east, Lake Ohrid in northwest and overlooks the city of Pogradec to the west. It stretches 25 km from north to south and is 8 km wide in its central part. Mali i Thatë highest peak is Pllaja e Pusit  and it reaches an altitude of 2,287 m above sea level. It is found within Albania, close to the Macedonian border. From this high peak, among several mountains of Albania, both Ohrid Lake and Prespa Lake can be seen as well as the third highest peak in the Republic of Macedonia, Baba Mountain or Pelister Mountain .</p><br>
<p>The mountain has an anticlinal shape and is almost completely composed of mesozoic limestone formations. Mali i Thatë has craggy slopes (especially the western face), whereas its crest is almost flat but full of karstic cavities.</p><br>
<p>The vegetation is primarily made up of alpine meadows, whereas in the eastern face beech, oak and bush forests are found.</p><br>
<p>Near the Albanian village of Goricë the soil is rich of iron bauxite and chalk minerals. During the Albanian Revolt of 1911 Spiro Bellkameni&#39;s band defeated an Ottoman contingent in Mali i Thatë.</p><br>
<p>Bleaklow is a high, largely peat-covered, gritstone moorland, just north of Kinder Scout, across the Snake Pass , in the Derbyshire High Peak near the town of Glossop. Much of it is nearly 2,000 feet  above sea level and the shallow bowl of Swains Greave on its eastern side is the source of the River Derwent.</p><br>
<p>Bleaklow Head (633 m), marked by a huge cairn of stones, is the high point at the western side of the moor, is a Hewitt and is crossed by the Pennine Way. It is one of three summits on this plateau above 2,000 feet, the others being Bleaklow Stones, some 1.9 miles (3 km) to the east along an indefinite ridge, and Higher Shelf Stones, 0.9 miles (1.5 km) south of Bleaklow Head.</p><br>
<p>At 633 metres (2,077 feet), Bleaklow is the second-highest point in Derbyshire and the area includes the most easterly point in the British Isles over 2,000 feet, near Bleaklow Stones.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Much of the main plateau of Bleaklow is a boggy peat moorland, seamed by groughs (pronounced gruffs, water-eroded channels in the peat), and lacking strong changes in elevation &ndash; in poor conditions its traverse is probably the most navigationally challenging in the Peak District.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>Bleaklow is part of the National Trust&#39;s High Peak Estate. There has been considerable investment of resources in recent years to block many of the eroded peat gulleys as part of major schemes to re-wet and restore healthy Sphagnum moss communities which are essential for peat formation, carbon-capture, and reduction in dissolved carbon which contaminates water supplies. Much of this work has been coordinated by the Moors for the Future project, funded by EU LIFE+ programme between 2010-2015. This involved laying 52 kilometres of geotextiles to stabilise eroded peat, creating 4,000 mini dams to retain water, introducing 150,000 moorland plants and spreading 807 million Sphagnum fragments across the whole Bleaklow Project site.</p><br>
<h2>Views</h2><br>
<p>The summit affords views across Manchester, Lancashire and Cheshire to the west and towards the Hope Valley, Holme Moss, Emley Moor and Yorkshire to the east. In exceptional weather conditions it is possible to see Snowdonia in North Wales.</p><br>
<h2>Aircraft crash</h2><br>
<p>On 3 November 1948, USAF Boeing RB-29A Superfortress 44-61999, of the 16th Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron, 91st Reconnaissance Group, 311th Air Division, Strategic Air Command; crashed at Higher Shelf Stones, Bleaklow, whilst en route from Scampton to Burtonwood. All 13 crew members were killed. A large amount of wreckage is still visible, as a memorial to the crash. Also, a proper memorial was erected at the site in 1988. There is public access to the area.</p><br>
<p>Femunden is Norway&#39;s third largest lake and the second largest natural lake in Norway. It is located close to the border with Sweden in the municipalities of Os, and Engerdal in Hedmark county and Røros in Sør-Trøndelag county. Femundsmarka National Park borders the northeastern part of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The 204 km&sup2; lake holds about 6 km3 of water and reaches a maximum depth of 130 m. The surface of the lake sits about 662 m above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The first element (Fe- or Fem-) has no known meaning, and the last element is the suffix -mund or -und (both are common in Norwegian place names).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After Sweden had conquered the parishes of Idre and Särna in 1644 lake Femunden was considered to be part of the border between Norway and Sweden. But this was never officially recognised by Norway (or in reality by the Danish government, since Norway was ruled from Copenhagen in the early modern age), and during border adjustments in 1751 the Femundsmarka east of the lake was granted to Norway from Sweden. The new (and current) border from 1751 is quite special: For a length of 61 kilometers (nearly 40 miles) it makes a completely straight line between the summits of Våndsjögusten (1002 meter) and Østerhogna (1185 meter), straight-line national borders being very unusual in Scandinavia except in the very northernmost parts.</p><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club, a private club in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, founded in 1889, is the oldest all-male collegiate musical comedy troupe in the United States. Created as an alternative to the existing theatrical and dramatic outlets at the University of Pennsylvania, Mask and Wig has presented comedy, music, and dancing to the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and audiences across the country. Its credo is "Justice to the stage; credit to the University."</p><br>
<p>The clubs performers, or "The Cast," put on two all-original shows each year in collaboration with the Clubs own Stage Crew, Band, and Business Staff. Many Mask and Wig originals were made famous on the radio by mid 20th century luminaries. The well-known "Route 66" was composed by club member Bobby Troup and launched to the height of popularity by Frank Sinatra. Troups song "Daddy" was written for a Mask and Wig show. Other Mask and Wig songs, such as "The Gypsy in My Soul," written by Clay Boland and Moe Jaffe, have been performed by the likes of Benny Goodman, Tommy Dorsey, and Ella Fitzgerald. The first electrically recorded album ever released was Mask and Wigs "Joan of Arkansas," in April 1925.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club of the University of Pennsylvania was first conceived of in 1888 by a small group of undergraduates, led by Clayton Fotterall McMichael, who were interested in the stage and desired something the University did not offer: a troupe that would produce original humorous theatrical pieces.</p><br>
<p>McMichael and his peers envisioned a group that involved dressing up in frocks and performing spoofs and parodies. Because colleges at the time were open only to young gentlemen, any production was limited to an all–male cast. These organizations naturally saw burlesque, which was quite popular in that era, as the perfect genre. The overblown characterizations, loose plotting, musical interludes, and parody of high art made the style perfect for a group of young, well-educated, amateur men, especially since the drag tradition came "built-in".</p><br>
<p>Founder McMichael combed the local bookstores for a story to produce and found it in Henry Byrons The Nymphs of the Lurleyburg. A substantially altered version, "Lurline", the Clubs first production, hit the boards at the Chestnut Street Opera House on June 4, 1889, for one night only. Backed financially by the ladies of Philadelphia high society, the Club enjoyed great success in its early years. With increasingly reliable audience turnout and revenue from ticket sales, the runs were extended and the Club established a fine tradition among Philadelphia&#39;s theater–going society. Moreover, the club made a very strong impression on campus and it achieved great notoriety within its first year of existence.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 the Club purchased a property at 310 South Quince Street to serve as a gathering place and rehearsal hall, the Mask and Wig Clubhouse. The building had been erected by the first African-American Lutheran congregation in America as St. Pauls Lutheran Church in 1834, but had been sold in 1839 and converted into a coachhouse and stable, and later into a dissecting room for medical students. Prominent Philadelphia architect Wilson Eyre was commissioned to remodel the building, and hired the young Maxfield Parrish, who would later become one of the greatest illustrators of the 20th century, to decorate the interior. The Grille Room was decorated with caricatures of members, a tradition that continues today, with the second century of members caricatures continued upstairs at the entrance to the auditorium. Eyre expanded the clubhouse to its present size, 1901-1903.</p><br>
<p>The Club prospered throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The middle of this century was a heady time for the Club. Mask and Wig songs were the rage of the big band orchestras, radio shows, and solo acts of the day. The likes of Frank Sinatra, Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Rosemary Clooney, and Les Brown all covered Mask and Wig tunes. Between 1952 and 1958, the club appeared four times on The Ed Sullivan Show. The 1961 production, Wry on the Rocks, introduced a satirical revue format in a cabaret atmosphere. In 1992, with Myth America, Mask and Wig returned the student–written book musical to its stage, a practice which continues to this day. Important in the shows success are the traditional high standards in the caliber of performers and excellence of the material performed. The Clubs primary purpose has always been and continues to be, "Justice to the stage; credit to the University."</p><br>
<p>Immediately after the end of World War II the Mask and Wig dormitory on the residence quadrangle was used to house a USA Army unit assigned to quickly learn the Japanese language. Upon the completion of the study the soldiers were to be commissioned in the USA Army and serve in the Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) of the Army in Japan. This army unit had classes in the University in the Egyptian Antiquities room while being scrutinized by several mummies. Classes were also held in the Wharton School of Business. Jerry Epple, a member of the Army Specialized Training Program, says he remembers to this day the stone carving of a mask and wig near the dormitory entrance.</p><br>
<p>Today, Mask and Wig maintains its position as one of the premier extracurricular activities on the Penn campus. Its yearly tour over spring break brings the show to alumni clubs across the nation.</p><br>
<h2>Organization</h2><br>
<h3>Club organization</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club has two components: the Undergraduate Company and the Graduate Club. The Undergraduate Company is composed of current undergrads at the University of Pennsylvania, who are the performers in and creators of each year&#39;s productions. They are the public face of the organization.</p><br>
<p>The Graduate Club is composed of Mask and Wig Alumni. The Graduate Club is responsible for many of the decisions that guide the Undergraduate Club, including overseeing many aspects of the production of the Spring Show, and the maintenance of the Clubhouse. They provide much of the funding for the maintenance of the Clubhouse and were responsible for raising the funds for its renovation. The Graduate Club and the Undergraduate Club interface through regular Board of Governors meetings, which feature both Undergraduate and Graduate club members.</p><br>
<h3>Undergraduate sections</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club is made up of four distinct sections: the cast, the band, the crew, and the business staff.</p><br>
<p>The cast writes and performs all of its own material during the Fall and Spring Shows. The band often functions as a pit orchestra, playing original, self-arranged pieces for the Fall show, and professionally arranged pieces for the Spring production. The band also holds the headliner spot at the University of Pennsylvanias annual Spring Fling festival in the Quad. The crew builds elaborate, ornate, and completely original sets for both the Fall and Spring Shows. The business staff is responsible for advertising and selling tickets for the clubs shows.</p><br>
<h3>Current graduate leadership</h3><br>
<p>President: Donald M. Fisher &#39;75</p><br>
<p>Vice-President: Franc Marmero &#39;99</p><br>
<p>Secretary: Louis Hornick, III &#39;02</p><br>
<p>Treasurer: James C. Praley &#39;76</p><br>
<p>Business Manager: Joshua F. Slatko &#39;00</p><br>
<p>Historian: Robert C. F. Willson &#39;82</p><br>
<h3>Current undergraduate leadership</h3><br>
<p>Chairman: Zeeshan Mallick</p><br>
<p>Secretary-Treasurer: Ethan Fein</p><br>
<p>Annual Production Head Writer: Tyler Bloom</p><br>
<p>Business Manager: Alec Goldberg</p><br>
<p>Stage Manager: Gabe Mickel</p><br>
<p>Band Leader: Kyle Kuhns</p><br>
<p>Cast Director: Nico Carrino</p><br>
<h2>Performances</h2><br>
<h3>Free Show</h3><br>
<p>Free Show is the first Mask and Wig show of the academic year. The show is held during the first week of the academic year and is free of charge to all new freshman. The cast performs classic bits that are tried and true. Free Show serves a few purposes: it introduces the new freshmen of the University of Pennsylvania to one of Penn&#39;s oldest institutions, and hopes to recruit new members by displaying what membership in the group entails.</p><br>
<h3>Fall Show</h3><br>
<p>Each fall, the undergraduates produce their own sketch comedy show that runs for one week in a theater on Penn&#39;s campus. The upperclassmen handle all aspects of production from acting direction to choreography to musical production. A notable highlight of the show is the Second Act Opener, which consists of a medley of songs from a famous musician or group, but with parodied lyrics that often follow a Penn-centered plot. Past parodied musicians include Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson, Billy Joel, The Beatles, Aerosmith, Disney, and Queen.</p><br>
<h3>ComFest</h3><br>
<p>In 1999, Mask and Wig established an annual Intercollegiate Comedy Festival to showcase the talent of the nation’s best collegiate sketch comedy troupes. The mission of the festival is not just to put on a hilarious show that cultivates new talent, but also to honor and showcase a well-known comedian. Each host does a stand-up routine for the audience and participates in sketches with Mask and Wig. Past college sketch troupes include:</p><br>
<p>Princeton Triangle Club</p><br>
<p>University of Maryland Sketchup</p><br>
<p>Yale Fifth Humour</p><br>
<p>Boston College Hello Shovelhead</p><br>
<p>Cornell University Humor Us! Sketch Comedy</p><br>
<p>Past guest hosts include:</p><br>
<p>2000 Paul Provenza</p><br>
<p>2001 Ana Gasteyer</p><br>
<p>2002 Bob Saget</p><br>
<p>2003 Kevin Nealon</p><br>
<p>2004 Stephen Colbert</p><br>
<p>2005 Tim Meadows</p><br>
<p>2006 Gilbert Gottfried</p><br>
<p>2007 Dan Bakkedahl</p><br>
<p>2008 Kenan Thompson</p><br>
<p>2009 Judah Friedlander</p><br>
<p>2010 Tom Green</p><br>
<p>2011 Aasif Mandvi</p><br>
<p>2012 Greg Proops</p><br>
<p>2014 Tommy Pope</p><br>
<h3>Spring Show</h3><br>
<p>The Spring Show, historically known as the Annual Production, is the theatrical centerpiece of Mask and Wig. Performed at The Mask and Wig Clubhouse, the production is an original show that runs from late January to early April. While the format of the Spring Show has evolved over the years, the show currently runs as a full "book" musical comedy, complete with singing and tap dancing.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the Fall Show, the Annual Production is professionally composed, directed, and choreographed by some of the best talents in the industry. The script, however, is written by the Club&#39;s cast.</p><br>
<h3>Tour</h3><br>
<p>During spring break the troupe takes their show around the country as they road trip across the United States, usually performing in areas with a high Penn alumni concentration. The trip usually includes about four to six stops. In recent years the tour has taken Wig to cities like Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco, Las Vegas, Chicago, and Toronto.</p><br>
<p>The tour is yet another one of the groups many traditions. In Mask and Wigs hey day, the group had its own train car that it would use to do a similar tour around the nation.</p><br>
<h3>Spring Fling</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Band traditionally headlines the last day of Spring Fling performances, which is typically a Saturday, at the stage in the Lower Quad. They generally perform an hour-long set of covers of popular music. Members of the cast generally sing for the band, along with female vocalists from other Penn performing arts groups. The other members of the company join the band on stage for the duration of the performance, and the show concludes with the singing of the Mask and Wig hallmark musical number, Tradition, by the senior members of the company.</p><br>
<h3>List of Annual Productions</h3><br>
<p>1889 Lurline</p><br>
<p>1890 Ben Franklin, Jr.</p><br>
<p>1891 Miss Columbia</p><br>
<p>1892 Mr. and Mrs. Cleopatra</p><br>
<p>1893 The Yankee League</p><br>
<p>1894 King Arthur</p><br>
<p>1895 Kenilworth</p><br>
<p>1896 No Gentleman of France</p><br>
<p>1897 Very Little Red Riding Hood</p><br>
<p>1898 The House That Jack Built</p><br>
<p>1899 Captain Kidd, USAN.</p><br>
<p>1900 Mr. Aguinaldo of Manila</p><br>
<p>1901 Baa, Baa, Black Sheep</p><br>
<p>1902 Old King Cole</p><br>
<p>1903 Sir Robinson Crusoe</p><br>
<p>1904 Alice in Anotherland</p><br>
<p>1905 Mr. Hamlet of Denmark</p><br>
<p>1906 Shylock & Co., Bankers</p><br>
<p>1907 Herr Lohengrin</p><br>
<p>1908 Uncle Sam’s Ditch</p><br>
<p>1909 Merely a Monarch</p><br>
<p>1910 The Desert of Mahomet</p><br>
<p>1911 Innocents</p><br>
<p>1912 Miss Helen of Troy</p><br>
<p>1913 Maid in Germany</p><br>
<p>1914 The Royal Arms</p><br>
<p>1915 Paradise Prison</p><br>
<p>1916 Whoa Phoebe!</p><br>
<p>1917 Mr. Rip Van Winkle</p><br>
<p>1918 The Bridal Not</p><br>
<p>1919 Revue or Revues</p><br>
<p>1920 Don Quixote, Esq.</p><br>
<p>1921 Somebody’s Lion</p><br>
<p>1922 Tell Tales</p><br>
<p>1923 Here’s Howe</p><br>
<p>1924 That’s That</p><br>
<p>1925 Joan of Arkansas</p><br>
<p>1926 A Sale and A Sailor</p><br>
<p>1927 Hoot Mon!</p><br>
<p>1928 Tarantella</p><br>
<p>1929 This Way Out!</p><br>
<p>1930 John Faust, Ph.D.</p><br>
<p>1931 East Lynne Gone West</p><br>
<p>1932 Ruff Neck</p><br>
<p>1933 Out of the Blues</p><br>
<p>1934 Easy Pickens</p><br>
<p>1935 Drums Fortissimo</p><br>
<p>1936 Red Rhumba</p><br>
<p>1936 This Mad Whirl</p><br>
<p>1937 Fifty – Fifty</p><br>
<p>1938 All Around the Town</p><br>
<p>1939 Great Guns</p><br>
<p>1940 High as a Kite</p><br>
<p>1941 Out of this World</p><br>
<p>1942 Paoli Local</p><br>
<p>1944 Red Points and Blue</p><br>
<p>1945 Hep to the Beat</p><br>
<p>1946 John Paul Jones</p><br>
<p>1946 Chris Crosses</p><br>
<p>1947 Juleo and Romiet</p><br>
<p>1948 Alaska Right Away</p><br>
<p>1949 Adamant Eve</p><br>
<p>1950 Count Me In!</p><br>
<p>1951 Doctor, Dear Doctor!</p><br>
<p>1952 Here’s Howe!</p><br>
<p>1953 The Golden Fleece</p><br>
<p>1954 Tempest in a Teapot</p><br>
<p>1955 Vamp ‘Till Ready</p><br>
<p>1956 Ring Around Rosie</p><br>
<p>1957 Free For All?</p><br>
<p>1958 Off the Top</p><br>
<p>1959 Wright Side Up</p><br>
<p>1961 Wry on the Rocks</p><br>
<p>1962 All at Sea</p><br>
<p>1963 Where Do We Go From Here?</p><br>
<p>1964 Sorry, Charlie, Your Time is Up</p><br>
<p>1965 Listen, They’re Playing Our Song</p><br>
<p>1966 About Farce</p><br>
<p>1967 Quick, Before It’s Written</p><br>
<p>1968 All’s Fair</p><br>
<p>1969 The Devil to Pay</p><br>
<p>1970 Wrought Irony</p><br>
<p>1971 Who’s Whom</p><br>
<p>1972 Now Listen Hear</p><br>
<p>1973 Take Ten</p><br>
<p>1974 Film Flam</p><br>
<p>1975 Mystery Loves Company</p><br>
<p>1976 Is It Yesterday Already?</p><br>
<p>1977 S!R!O!</p><br>
<p>1978 Pow! Zowie! Zap!</p><br>
<p>1979 You Bet Your Assets</p><br>
<p>1980 Daze a Vu</p><br>
<p>1981 Hire and Higher</p><br>
<p>1981 Between the Covers</p><br>
<p>1983 You Gotta Have Art</p><br>
<p>1984 Urban and Soda</p><br>
<p>1985 Irreverence of Things Past</p><br>
<p>1986 Happily Ever Laughter</p><br>
<p>1987 Eureka!? I Hardly Know Ya!</p><br>
<p>1988 Lurline, Again!</p><br>
<p>1989 Pun & Crime–ishment</p><br>
<p>1990 Healthy, Wealthy, and Wry</p><br>
<p>1991 Around the World in a Daze</p><br>
<p>1992 Myth America</p><br>
<p>1993 Westward Who?</p><br>
<p>1994 A Sworded Affair</p><br>
<p>1995 Thugs and Kisses</p><br>
<p>1996 Hit or Mrs.</p><br>
<p>1997 Mystery Repeats Itself</p><br>
<p>1998 Blasphemy? Blasphe-you!</p><br>
<p>1999 From Here to Maturity</p><br>
<p>2000 History in the Faking</p><br>
<p>2001 All’s Fair in Love and Dwarfs</p><br>
<p>2002 Star-Spangled Banter</p><br>
<p>2003 Riot on the Set</p><br>
<p>2004 All&#39;s Hell That Ends Well</p><br>
<p>2005 Birth of a Notion</p><br>
<p>2006 Yahweh or the Highway</p><br>
<p>2007 Troy Story</p><br>
<p>2008 West Wing Story</p><br>
<p>2009 Oh, The Humanities!</p><br>
<p>2010 A Cheshire Catastrophe</p><br>
<p>2011 A Volcanic Corruption</p><br>
<p>2012 A Reptile Dysfunction</p><br>
<p>2013 Beautopia: A Face Odyssey</p><br>
<p>2014 Wishful Sinking</p><br>
<p>2015 A Comedy of Terrors</p><br>
<p>2016 Flight Club</p><br>
<p>2017 No Place Like Rome</p><br>
<h3>List of Fall Shows</h3><br>
<p>1971 No, But I Read the Cliff Notes</p><br>
<p>1972 You Aint Nothin But A Blue Suede Shoe</p><br>
<p>1973 Don&#39;t Throw Money</p><br>
<p>1974 Holding the Bag</p><br>
<p>1975 Humor</p><br>
<p>1976 FurKing in the Jungle</p><br>
<p>1977 All You Can Eat</p><br>
<p>1978 Parodies Lost</p><br>
<p>1979 Fill &#39;Er Up</p><br>
<p>1981 Ring Job</p><br>
<p>1982 Beau Jest</p><br>
<p>1983 Wit Or Witout</p><br>
<p>1983 No Eggrolls For Me Thank You I&#39;ve Just Been Vaccinated</p><br>
<p>1984 Shooting Stars: A Hollywood Murder Musical</p><br>
<p>1985 Eat Wit and Die</p><br>
<p>1986 What a Drag</p><br>
<p>1987 Your Mother</p><br>
<p>1988 Pippin or Hamlet Prince of Denmark</p><br>
<p>1989 Sex, Lies and Masking Tape</p><br>
<p>1990 Saddam & Gomorrah</p><br>
<p>1991 Male Chauvinist Wyg</p><br>
<p>1992 Debauchery, Debacle and Decandlestickmaker</p><br>
<p>1993 Ah Brutus, You Kill Me</p><br>
<p>1994 Carpe Stouffer: Seize the Tray</p><br>
<p>1995 Freudian Slip</p><br>
<p>1996 Something To Do Before You Get Mugged</p><br>
<p>1997 What Willis Was Talking About</p><br>
<p>1998 Bidets of Thunder</p><br>
<p>1999 The End Of The World As We Wrote It</p><br>
<p>2000 You Are the Wind Beneath My Fingers, Wings and Other Things</p><br>
<p>2001 Win Ben Stein&#39;s Wife and Kids</p><br>
<p>2002 Less Miserable</p><br>
<p>2003 Donkey Donuts</p><br>
<p>2004 Waiting for Gutmann</p><br>
<p>2005 Hogan&#39;s Gyros</p><br>
<p>2006 Singin&#39; in Bahrain</p><br>
<p>2007 Phallus in Wonderland</p><br>
<p>2008 Oil Vey!</p><br>
<p>2009 Conquistadora the Explorer</p><br>
<p>2010 Ra and UnTut</p><br>
<p>2011 Mario Brothers, Where Art Thou?</p><br>
<p>2012 Tights, Camera, Action!</p><br>
<p>2013 A State of Confucian</p><br>
<p>2014 An Eye for an Island</p><br>
<p>2015 No Country for Old Penn</p><br>
<p>2016 Magic Mike & Ike</p><br>
<p>2017 I Am What I Amazon</p><br>
<h2>The Clubhouse</h2><br>
<h3>Clubhouse art</h3><br>
<p>Working in his studio just a few blocks away at Thirteenth and Walnut Streets, Maxfield Parrish received one of his first commissions in 1894 from Mask and Wig. This first job came as he was finishing his studies at the Pennsylvania Academy; it was for decoration of the stage proscenium and ticket window, illustration of a number of caricatures on the wall of the Grille Room, and most notably the Old King Cole mural. This was the start of his professional career; shortly after seeing the mural, the editor of “Harpet’s” Magazine invited Parrish to do some of their covers for which he became famous. He would continue working for the Club to finish a total of 35 caricatures and illustrate the earliest program covers.</p><br>
<p>Wilson Eyre was older and more established than Parrish when he began working on the Clubhouse, and was good friends with Parrish’s father, Stephen. Eyre was the architect in charge of renovating the Club’s new home and transforming it from a stable into a “Bavarian” themed Clubhouse. His first remodel in 1894 transformed the space from the stable by adding an entry hall with stairs, designing and decorating the Grille Room, and turning the second floor into a theater. Eyre designed most of the furniture in the Grille Room; three of the original tables still exist and will be returned to the Clubhouse upon its reopening. Eyre also oversaw the second major change. The building was enlarged in 1903 by adding 10 feet to the front creating the façade that still exists there today. Eyre’s original drawing of the front design, created in 1902, is shown to the right. Eyre’s design has endured for over a century with few changes aside from the ongoing addition of paneling for caricatures in the Grille Room and Theater. Though Eyre’s career included several projects like the Clubhouse, he is best known for his design of the University of Pennsylvania’s Museum.</p><br>
<h3>Clubhouse renovations</h3><br>
<p>Immediately following the close of the 2007 Spring show, the clubhouse began to undergo an extensive renovation. In addition to bringing the building up to modern code, the club also installed an elevator and central air conditioning unit. The construction, originally projected to be complete in time for a normal Spring show run, experienced a number of delays and setbacks. On the morning of March 15, 2008, a fire broke out in the attic of the clubhouse, setting back the completion date indefinitely. While nothing of historical significance was critically damaged, the 2008 Spring show, "West Wing Story", could not go on in the club&#39;s signature theater.</p><br>
<p>Luckily, the club had a contingency plan in case of such an emergency, and was able to put on their show. "West Wing Story" played for two weekends in April, 2008 at the Prince Music Theater in downtown Philadelphia, marking the first annual production to be performed at a venue other than the clubhouse since 1960. The generosity of Mask and Wig&#39;s Graduate Club made it financially possible to perform in a professional theater. With renovations still behind schedule in 2009, the annual production "Oh, the Humanities!" was also performed at the Prince Music Theater for three weekends, selling a record number of tickets due to the large theater capacity.</p><br>
<p>The clubhouse renovation was completed in the fall of 2009, allowing the club to once again return to its own stage for the 2010 Annual Production, "A Cheshire Catastrophe".</p><br>
<p>The Crown Range lies to the east of the Wakatipu Basin in Otago, New Zealand. It is noted for two features, the Cardrona Alpine Resort, on the slopes of the 1900 metre Mount Cardrona, and a highway, known as the Crown Range Road , which winds steeply between Arrow Junction, just south of Arrowtown, and Wanaka to the north.</p><br>
<p>Travelling from Arrowtown towards Cromwell the Crown Range Road starts at the bottom of the Zig Zag. This steep and winding climb goes to the Crown Terrace which is a large flat and fertile area capable of growing grain crops. The road off to the left is to Glencoe Station (Glencoe Road) and at the end of the Crown Terrace is the Eastburn Road to Eastburn Station. Glencoe Station is the large high country station behind Arrowtown. Eastburn Station is also large and runs from the Glencoe boundary almost to Cardrona, New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Just past the Eastburn Road the road twists and climbs up to the Crown Saddle, where a bronze plaque at the vista point claims that this historic summit, at 1076 m (3530 ft) is the highest sealed road in New Zealand, which is not correct. The Crown Saddle is however the highest sealed pass (2m higher than the Desert Road summit on State Highway 1 in the North Island). Eastburn Station has provided a number of viewing areas. The distant views down and over Lake Hayes, Arrowtown and the airport to Queenstown are stunning. From the Crown Saddle the road follows the Cardrona creek which becomes the Cardrona River flowing down the iconic snow tussock valley until it opens out at the small settlement of Cardrona.</p><br>
<p>The area was heavily populated during the Central Otago goldrush of the 1860s, the town of Cardrona, now little more than a dot on the map, briefly having a population of several thousand prospectors. There are visible remains of gold prospecting beside the Crown Range Road over the Saddle (landform)</p><br>
<p>saddle on the west bank opposite the East Burn Stream two miles over the saddle, also six miles below the saddle on the east bank.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, the last section of the Crown Range Road was sealed by the Queenstown Lakes District Council.</p><br>
<p>The Dart River, Te Awa Wakatipu in Māori language, flows through rugged forested country in the southwestern South Island of New Zealand. Partly in Mount Aspiring National Park, it flows south-west and then south for 60 km from its headwaters in the Southern Alps and the Dart Glacier, eventually flowing into the northern end of Lake Wakatipu near Glenorchy. It was named in the 1860s by a runholder, William Gilbert Rees, who chose the name for the river&#39;s swift flow.</p><br>
<p>Several popular tramping tracks are found nearby, notably the Rees-Dart Track, which follows the valley of the Dart and the nearby Rees River. Jetboats operate on the river.</p><br>
<p>The Dart River, as many other areas in and around the Glenorchy and Queenstown area, has also been the location for many scenes filmed for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. Examples of these locations are Isengard, filmed at Dan&#39;s Paddock and Lothlórien in the forests slightly further north.</p><br>
<p>The upper valley was the site of one of New Zealand&#39;s worst light aircraft accidents in 1989, when an Aspiring Air Britten-Norman Islander crashed, killing all ten people on board.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hāwea is located in the Otago Region of New Zealand, at an altitude of 348 metres. It covers an area of some 141 km² and is, at its deepest, 392 metres deep.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hāwea is named after a Māori tribe who preceded the Waitaha people in the area.</p><br>
<p>At its greatest extent, which is roughly along a north-south axis, Lake Hāwea is 35 kilometres long. It lies in a glacial valley formed during the last ice age, and is fed by the Hunter River. Nearby Lake Wanaka lies in a parallel glacial valley eight kilometres to the west. At their closest point (a rocky ridge called The Neck), the lakes are only 1000 metres apart.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hāwea is dammed to the south by an ancient terminal moraine created some 10,000 years ago. In 1958 the lake was artificially raised by 20 metres to store more water for increased hydroelectric power generation at the Roxburgh Dam.</p><br>
<p>The only flat land around the lake is at its southern end, surrounding its outflow into the Hāwea River, a short tributary of the Clutha RiverClutha</p><br>
<p>/ Matau-au, which it joins near Albert Town. The settlement of Hāwea is found at the lake&#39;s southern shore.</p><br>
<p>The lake is a popular resort, and is well used in the summer for fishing, boating and swimming. The nearby mountains and fast-flowing rivers allow for adventure tourism year-round, with jetboating and skiing nearby.</p><br>
<h3>Maori History</h3><br>
<p>For Maori, the Wanaka and Hāwea area was a natural crossroads. The Haast Pass led to the West Coast and its pounamu; the Cardrona Valley led to the natural rock bridge "Whatatorere" which was the only place that the Kawarau River and Clutha River / Mata-Au could be crossed without boats. Reed boats enabled a swift return downriver to the east coast.</p><br>
<p>The Cromwell basin supported a large population of moa, which were hunted to extinction about 500 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Until the early nineteenth century, the area was visited annually by Ngai Tahu who sought pounamu in the mountains above the Haast River and hunted eels and birds over summer, returning to the east coast by descending the Clutha River / Mata-Au in reed boats.</p><br>
<p>Ngai Tahu use of the land was ended by attacks by North Island tribes. In 1836, the Ngati Tama chief Te Puoho led a 100-person war party, armed with muskets, down the West Coast and over the Haast Pass: they fell on the Ngai Tahu encampment between Lake Wanaka and Lake Hawea, capturing 10 people and killing and eating two children. Although Te Puoho was later killed by the southern Ngai Tahu leader Tuhawaiki., Maori seasonal visits to the area ceased.</p><br>
<p>The first European to see the lake was Nathaniel Chalmers in 1853.</p><br>
<p>Guided by Reko and Kaikoura, he walked from Tuturau (Southland) to the lakes via the Kawarau River. However he was stricken by dysentery, so his guides returned him down the Clutha in a reed boat.</p><br>
<h2>Namesakes</h2><br>
<p>There have been 3 Royal New Zealand Navy ships named after the lake, one of which is active still in service.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ohau is a glacial lake in the Mackenzie Basin of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It is fed by the Hopkins and Dobson rivers, which have their headwaters in the Southern Alps, and has its outflow in the Ohau River, which itself feeds into the Waitaki River hydroelectric project.</p><br>
<p>Ohau is the smallest of three roughly parallel lakes running north-south along the northern edge of the Mackenzie Basin (the others are Lake Pukaki and Lake Tekapo). It covers 60 km².</p><br>
<p>The Ohau ski field is located close to the southwestern shore of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake forms part of the traditional boundary between Otago and Canterbury regions, Otago&#39;s northernmost point being the headwaters of the Hopkins River. Officially the lake lies in the northwestern part of the Waitaki District within the southern part of the Canterbury region.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ohau is on the route of the Alps to Ocean Cycle Trail, which has been constructed in the years after approval in 2010. The trail runs along the Lake up to Lake Ohau Lodge, and then climbs up the Tarnbrae Track before a flowing descent to Quailburn Road.</p><br>
<p>Lake Waitaki is the smallest, oldest and farthest downstream of the three man-made lakes of the Waitaki hydroelectric project in New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It lies below lakes Aviemore and Benmore on the Waitaki River, close to the town of Kurow. It is part of the traditional boundary of the Canterbury and Otago regions (although the official border has been moved southward to include the entire lake, as well as the entire northwest portion of Waitaki District within the Canterbury Region.</p><br>
<p>The lake is created by Waitaki Dam, a 36m high spill weir dam built between 1928 and 1934. The Waitaki power station has an installed capacity of 105MW. Waitaki was the last dam built in New Zealand with excavation done with pick and shovel, not heavy machinery. The power station is to be upgraded by Meridian Energy between 2011 and 2016 at a projected cost of $NZ 60 - 80 million.</p><br>
<p>Lake Aviemore or Mahi Tikumu is a man-made lake in New Zealand&#39;s South Island, part of the Waitaki hydroelectric scheme. Immediately upstream is Lake Benmore and downstream Lake Waitaki. Aviemore lies on both sides of the border between the Waimate and Waitaki districts.</p><br>
<p>It is part of the traditional boundary of the Canterbury and Otago regions, although, officially, the border has been moved southward to include the lake, as well as the entire northwestern portion of the Waitaki District in the Canterbury Region. The Otematata settlement situated on State Highway 83 is just west of the lake, and was built in 1958 as a base for the construction of the Aviemore and Benmore Dams. Closer to the lake the old village Wharekuri which encompasses Aviemore was populous in the 1860s.</p><br>
<p>The Aviemore Dam, completed in 1968, is the newest of the three dams on the Waitaki river. It is made out of both earth and concrete.</p><br>
<p>By continuing the sinuous course of the river after the lake, one encounters Parsons Rock, named after Reverend J.C. Andrew (The Parson) who usually gave Christmas day sermon there. A story goes to say that stolen gold taken from the Wharekuri Hotel was hidden near Parsons Rock.The suspects were to be apprehended but no money was ever found by the authorities in the hiding place.</p><br>
<p>In both Lake Aviemore and Benmore, one can fish salmon and trout year round except in September. Two main events are held on Lake Aviemore, there is the Labour weekend Aviemore Classic Trailer yacht race and the Windsurfing Championships in January.</p><br>
<p>The Wolf River, 225 mi long, is one of the two National Scenic Rivers in Wisconsin, along with the St. Croix River. The scenic portion is 24 mi long. It rises in the north woods of the state, with the northernmost fork stemming from the confluence of Wildcat Creek and Pine Creek , in Forest County. The river flows south through Langlade and Menominee counties, where whitewater rafting is well known. Menominee County is mostly within the boundaries of the federally recognized Menominee Indian Reservation.</p><br>
<p>Next the Wolf River flows through Shawano County, where it collects the Red River, passes by the city of Shawano, then flows through Waupaca and Outagamie counties and back into Waupaca County, where it collects the Embarrass River at the city of New London. The final stretch of the Wolf River collects the Little Wolf and the Waupaca rivers just below New London, then passes through Winnebago County, through Lake Poygan and the city of Winneconne to empty into Lake Butte des Morts on the Fox River.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental concerns</h2><br>
<p>Environmentalists were concerned about preserving the river when the Crandon mine was proposed near a tributary of the river. The Crandon Mine was purchased by the Sokaogon Mole Lake Chippewa Band tribe in 2003 to prevent development that would adversely affect the river. The campaign to stop the Crandon Mine on the Wisconsins Wolf River was the result of successful coalition-building efforts amongst Wisconsins indigenous groups, environmentalists, and rural citizens.</p><br>
<h2>Sturgeon guard</h2><br>
<p>This river is noted for the sturgeon which spawn annually in the springtime in the Wolf River and its parent, the Fox River, between approximately April 15 and May 5, as they swim upstream from Lake Winnebago. It is estimated that the extent of the lake sturgeon has dropped to about one-tenth of its population in the state since year 1800. This species, which has existed since the time of the dinosaurs (100 million years ago), has a viable naturally reproducing population, which are highly prized for the taste of their flesh, and also for their eggs. These are said to rival those of the beluga sturgeon of Russia and Ukraine, in quality and price. Female sturgeon deposit their eggs only about every four to six years, starting at 20 years old, up to their life span of 50 years. At this age, the sturgeon are five feet long. The fish spawn in the shallows of the Wolf river, as they swim upstream.</p><br>
<p>In order to protect the spawning locations of the sturgeon from poaching when the fish are the most vulnerable, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources formed a citizen sturgeon guard called Sturgeon For Tomorrow in the early 1990s. They volunteer to watch over the spawning sites during the spawning season. The head guard, or "sturgeon general" assigns the site, an identifying hat (and souvenir), and cell phone for the 12-hour shift. The guards are warned not to confront poachers, but to call in the incident to the armed wardens. The program is very popular in the state and weekend volunteer slots are filled quickly.</p><br>
<h2>Walleye</h2><br>
<p>The walleye is very popular during their spawning period, during the spring. Many fishermen set out to catch their daily limit. The walleye is probably the most prized fish on the river.</p><br>
<h2>White bass</h2><br>
<p>The white bass or sand bass (Morone chrysops) is a freshwater fish of the temperate bass family Moronidae that also spawns in the Wolf River. The spring spawn typically occurs during the last two weeks of May when the female of the species is prevalent. During this time, a huge influx of fisherman (boating and shore) are attracted to the entire Wolf system. The average white bass taken from the Wolf watershed typically measures 200–300 mm (8-12 inches) in length with a maximum of about 475 mm (19 inches). While different fishing methods and techniques are used, the most common is the river rig (also known as the Wolf River rig).</p><br>
<p>The Derby Canal ran 14 mi from the Trent and Mersey Canal at Swarkestone to Derby and Little Eaton, and to the Erewash Canal at Sandiacre, in Derbyshire, England. The canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament in 1793 and was fully completed in 1796. It featured a level crossing of the River Derwent in the centre of Derby. An early tramroad, known as the Little Eaton Gangway, linked Little Eaton to coal mines at Denby. The canal&#39;s main cargo was coal, and it was relatively successful until the arrival of the railways in 1840. It gradually declined, with the gangway closing in 1908 and the Little Eaton Branch in 1935. Early attempts at restoration were thwarted by the closure of the whole canal in 1964. Since 1994, there has been an active campaign for restoration spearheaded by the Derby and Sandiacre Canal Trust and Society. Loss of the Derwent crossing due to development has resulted in an innovative engineering solution called the Derby Arm being proposed, as a way of transferring boats across the river.</p><br>
<h2>Origin</h2><br>
<p>Although the River Derwent had been used for transport from the Trent since ancient times, it was winding and shallow in many places, silting frequently. The right to use it for navigation was conferred upon the citizens of Derby by King John in 1204. The engineer George Sorocold was involved with plans for improvements, although it is uncertain whether he was involved in the actual work. Plans had been first proposed in 1664, and bills had been presented to Parliament in 1696 and 1698. In 1703, Sorocold attended Parliament to give evidence for a scheme which involved four new cuts, with weirs and locks, on a 10 mi stretch of the river. The bill failed, but the map for a similar scheme presented in 1717 was said to be drawn by Sorocold. This became the Derwent Navigation Act in 1720, and the work enabled boats to reach Derby in January 1721, but it was still difficult to navigate in periods of flood or dry weather. Indeed the Trent itself was little better.</p><br>
<p>In 1770, James Brindley had brought the Trent and Mersey Canal to the Trent near Shardlow. He proposed a canal from Swarkestone through Derby to join the Chesterfield Canal, but he was resisted by the Derwent Navigation and the Trent Navigation companies, and the matter was not raised again until 1791. Two schemes were then proposed by rival groups, one from Swarkestone to Derby, and the other from Derby to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Shardlow. By August 1792, the first scheme had grown to include a branch to Smithy House near Denby, another to Newhall and Swadlincote, and a third to Cheadle in Staffordshire, following a route through Sudbury and Uttoxeter. When Benjamin Outram was asked to carry out surveys later that year, it had been reduced to a more sensible size, and he estimated that the construction of a broad canal from Swarkestone to Smithy Houses, with a branch from Derby to the Erewash Canal at Sandiacre, including the purchase of the Derwent Navigation Company, would cost £60,000</p><br>
<p>(£ as of ).</p><br>
<p>The costs of the length from Derby to Denby would account for a third of this, and the plan included an aqueduct across the River Derwent at Derby, costing £8,160. Initially Outram suggested a narrow canal as an alternative. William Jessop was asked to give his opinion and he suggested a tramway from Little Eaton to Denby. This, the Derby Canal Railway, but known locally, as the Little Eaton Gangway, was therefore one of the first to be publicly subscribed, and would save the construction of six locks.</p><br>
<p>Outram also proposed to save some £4000 by dispensing with the aqueduct and, instead, building a weir to raise the river level to form a basin adjacent to the Morledge, with locks connecting it to each branch of the canal. A bridge would carry the towpath across the basin. A small aqueduct would still be needed to cross the mill race on the west side of the Holmes.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The Bill was passed by Parliament in 1793 by a narrow majority in the face of strong opposition from the Trent and Mersey Canal and the Erewash Canal owners who had a scheme of their own.</p><br>
<p>Work commenced with the Little Eaton branch and the gangway, followed by the Sandiacre line. This began with a small basin under what is now St. Alkmunds Way, proceeding eastwards following a line south of the Nottingham Road. A short branch from the basin led via Phoenix lock to the river above a weir at St. Marys Bridge, which gave access to the Darley Abbey mills. These were located some 1.2 mi upstream from the bridge. By 1904, the river was only used for the first 0.35 mi, up to the Great Northern Railway bridge, according to Bradshaw&#39;s Guide.</p><br>
<p>The Sandiacre line followed the course of the old Nottingham Road with two locks near Borrowash, then level through Draycott and Breaston, and descending through two locks to Sandiacre Junction with the Erewash Canal, a distance of 9 mi. The Little Eaton line branched northwards at the boundary of the racecourse, passing to the east of Chester Green, parallel to and east of the present day railway. The canal from Derby to Little Eaton was opened on 11 May 1795, the first load of coal from Denby being distributed to the poor of Derby. The Sandiacre line was opened on 30 May 1795.</p><br>
<p>Work then began on the crossing of the Derwent, followed by the line out to Swarkestone. From the small weir mentioned above a canal led through what is now Darwin Place to the Derwent Basin above the weir in the river which still exists behind the Council House, downstream of the Exeter Bridge. A timber causeway was built on trestles for use as the towpath. The weir also contained a culvert which transferred water between two branches, for a distance of about 0.25 mi.</p><br>
<p>From the basin the canal fell into a lock before crossing the mill race (which still runs beside Basss Recreation Ground) by way of the cast-iron aqueduct arriving at Gandys Wharf roughly where the Cockpit island is now.</p><br>
<p>It followed the line of the mill race before passing behind what became the Locomotive Works (now Pride Park), before turning sharply southwards towards Chellaston descending through Shelton and Fullen&#39;s locks. It joined the Trent and Mersey Canal at Swarkestone Junction, a distance from Derby of 5.5 mi. A short extension led on to the River Trent just upstream from Swarkestone Bridge. The route from Derby to Swarkestone was opened on 30 June 1796.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Little Eaton gangway was built using cast iron plates, initially weighing 28 lb per yard</p><br>
<p>(13.9 kg/m) although this was increased to 40 lb per yard (19.8 kg/m) for plates made after 1804. By 1825, there were nine passing places on the single-track line, which carried 2-ton waggons. Each waggon carried a box of coal, with a load of between 1.65 and 1.87 tons, which was transferred to a barge at Little Eaton wharf by a crane. From Smithy Houses, several private lines served the Denby Main colliery and other mines in the locality. Further extensions were made in the 1820s, by which time there were around 6 mi of tramroad.</p><br>
<p>The Holmes Aqueduct proved to be extremely troublesome. Aqueducts up to that time had been made of stone, but several short arches would have been necessary, causing obstruction to the flow of the stream. The 44 ft single-span cast iron structure that Outram devised, and completed in 1796, was the first of its kind, as it was completed a few weeks earlier than Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct, the structure by Thomas Telford at Longdon-on-Tern on the Shrewsbury Canal.</p><br>
<p>In 1802 there was a partial failure, probably due to the sides bowing and transferring too much weight to the base where they joined to the deck. After remedial work it failed again in 1812 and was reinforced with timber baulks. Although plans were prepared for replacement in stone, it survived until 1930, when the bottom plates were replaced by a wooden base, which was sealed by puddling.</p><br>
<p>In 1817 the link between the River Trent and the Trent and Mersey canal was closed due to its lack of financial success. Maintenance charges had exceeded revenue since 1812, as it was little used because the Trent and Mersey canal charged compensation tolls at extortionate rates for boats using the link. Twenty years later it was dry.</p><br>
<p>In 1838 the canal was diverted away from the River Derwent at Borrowash to allow construction of the Midland Counties Railway line between Derby and Long Eaton. This diversion included building a new Borrowash Top Lock.</p><br>
<p>The canal was relatively successful prior to the arrival of railways. Traffic figures are scarce, but in 1798, 28,571 tons of coal were recorded, of which 40 per cent came from the Little Eaton gangway. By 1803 this had risen to 50,374 tons, with 55 per cent from the gangway. Rather than it just supplying Derby, the company encouraged through trade on the canal, and this contributed to its profitability. Regular dividends were paid to shareholders from 1811, although some had been paid in previous years. Initially, they were close to the 5 per cent promised by the original Act, but reached 12 per cent in 1839. Although this exceeded the amount specified by the Act, it was justified as covering years where the 5 per cent had not been made. Traffic figures for February and March 1839 indicate that the Little Eaton line carried 13,332 tons, the Sandiacre line carried 15,725 tons, and 9,773 tons were carried on the Swarkestone line. This would suggest that the total for the year was around 200,000 tons.</p><br>
<h2>Decline</h2><br>
<p>In 1830 the company considered building a locomotive line from Derby to Smithy Houses, and two years later looked at the possibility of a locomotive line from Derby to Little Eaton. The first was surveyed by an engineer called Stephenson, presumed to be George Stephenson, but no further action was taken. Toll reductions were made from 1834, in an attempt to stay competitive, but by 1840 there were three main line railways in Derby. By 1845, tolls on the Little Eaton line were less than half what they had been five years earlier. The Derby and Gainsborough Company wanted to buy the Little Eaton line in 1846, and were quoted £30,000, as were the Midland Railway in 1847. Instead, they built a parallel line to Ripley, which opened in 1855.</p><br>
<p>Receipts fell from £8,180 to £2,556 between 1838 and 1868, and dividends for the same period fell from 10.5 per cent to 4 per cent. An attempt was made in 1872 to sell the whole canal to the Midland Railway for £90,000, without success, and a similar offer to the London and North Western Railway also failed. Traffic suffered further decline when Butterley Tunnel on the neighbouring Cromford Canal had to be closed. The Little Eaton gangway was closed in 1908, ten years after the action was first considered, and the Little Eaton branch followed on 4 July 1935, when the company obtained a warrant for its closure. Attempts to close the Sandiacre line in 1937 were thwarted by objections from Imperial Chemical Industries. Commercial traffic on the remainder of the canal ceased in 1945. In 1964 the canal company gained permission to close the rest of the canal. Over the next three decades, areas of the canal were built on while others were allowed to decay.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>In view of proposals to abandon the canal, B. A. Mallender, who lived in the locality, asked the fledgling Inland Waterways Association to help mount a campaign for its revival in 1947. The author Tom Rolt made a series of cruises on threatened waterways at this time, but could not obtain permission to navigate the Derby Canal. Rolt took his case to the Ministry of Transport, seeking to invoke the conditions of the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1888, but was told that they would not sanction an inspection of the canal, because the company had intimated that they were preparing to restore the waterway. In 1956 a local committee was formed to campaign for restoration. By 1961, Derby Council were actively promoting the infilling of the canal, and so the Inland Waterways Association together with the Derby Canal Restoration Committee wrote to the Derby Evening Telegraph, calling for the canal&#39;s restoration. Although the council refused to comment, the letter, which was published on 1 February 1961, caused considerable local debate, and a protest cruise was organised on the Erewash Canal, with the Derby Canal entrance lock as the destination. The Times national newspaper carried details of the event, and a subsequent meeting held on 27 May called for a public enquiry into how best to restore the canal for commercial and amenity use. Despite the campaigns, the company obtained a warrant to abandon the whole canal in 1964.</p><br>
<p>With the changed economic climate of the 1990s and the success of other restoration schemes, a feasibily study was carried out in 1994. It included detailed plans for restoration, and concluded that the cost for reinstating the 14 mi main line would be £17.3 million. To make progress, a company called the Derby and Sandiacre Canal Trust was formed, with volunteer input managed by the Derby and Sandiacre Canal Society. In early 1996, construction of the Derby Bypass threatened to sever the line at Swarkestone, although the Department of Transport suggested that a navigable culvert could be provided if the Canal Society paid for it. In 2000, Derby Council assisted the canal trust in applying for a £3.2 million grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund, to create a linear park by restoring the canal from Spondon to Sandiacre, while the canal was identified as one of several projects which British Waterways thought they could assist, at its annual general meeting held in 2001.</p><br>
<p>By mid-2003, the canal trust has succeeded in getting the whole route of the canal protected by inclusion in the local council structure plans. By this time, the estimated cost of restoration had risen to £34 million, but they launched a major initiative to raise the funding over a 10-year period. Grants from the Derbyshire City Partnership received from 2008 enabled the Trust Development Group to begin the process of applying for outline planning permission for reinstatement. The route of the canal passes through three local council regions, and so separate applications had to be made to Derby City Council, Erewash Borough Council and South Derbyshire District Council. All three applications had been approved by 24 August 2011, paving the way for actual reinstatement to begin, subject to the necessary funding being available. The restoration plans do not include reinstatement of a level crossing of the River Derwent. The site of the original crossing has been lost to development, and there would be issues with water supply and flood risk associated with a crossing on the level. An innovative solution has been suggested in the form of the Derby Arm, which would transport a caisson containing water and a boat in a semi-circular arc from one side of the river to the other. Its design is similar to a medieval trebuchet.</p><br>
<p>Plans for the restoration were threatened in 2103 when the route of High Speed 2, a high-speed rail link from London to Birmingham, Manchester and York, were published. This envisaged an East Midlands Hub station at Toton, which would have destroyed part of the canal route, but revised plans were published on 15 November 2016, with the station moved to avoid the canal. The chairman of the Derby and Sandiacre Canal Trust, Chris Madge, was still concerned that a tramway to link the station to Derby would impinge upon the canal, but was hopeful that the canal in this area could be reopened before tramway construction began, and that the plans for the tramway would therefore have to accommodate the canal.</p><br>
<h2>The canal today</h2><br>
<p>From Swarkestone the line of the canal can be followed into Derby as far as Wilmorton although the only recognisable canal features are the chambers of Fullen&#39;s and Shelton Locks and the bridges under Chellaston Road (pictured) and London Road. Route 6 of the National Cycle Network (NCN 6) follows this part of the canal.</p><br>
<p>Although traces of the canal through Derby city centre remained until well into the twentieth century (the ice factory on what was the Cockpit island drew its water from the canal), it has all been covered by development, mainly the inner ring road and Pride Parkway. New building at Pride Park has obliterated all traces of the canal in that area.</p><br>
<p>The weir built across the river to form the Derwent Basin still exists behind the Council House, downstream of the Exeter Bridge, and the timber causeway on trestles, which was used as the towpath, remained until 1959. The Holmes Aqueduct was removed in 1971, and after a period in storage at a council depot, was sold for scrap.</p><br>
<p>The remains of the towpath are visible at a bridge under the railway immediately north of Derby railway station. An unused span of the railway bridge over Old Nottingham Road once crossed the canal. Steel girders set into the kerb edge of Old Nottingham Road near its junction with Stores Road are the remains of a bridge over the Little Eaton line. The Little Eaton line and the gangway have also disappeared, apart from the Wharf Building at Little Eaton, in the present day trading estate, and a couple of bridges. The clock house is a grade II listed structure, built for the canal&#39;s agent at the junction between the canal and the Little Eaton gangway. It is an L-shaped building, constructed of red bricks with a tiled roof in about 1795.</p><br>
<p>The A52 Brian Clough Way was built upon the canal between the Pentagon and Spondon. From Spondon the line can be traced to Sandiacre. NCN 6 uses the canal route between Borrowash and Breaston. One of the few original bridges is situated between the A6005 Derby Road and the railway at Borrowash. It is constructed of red brick with stone dressings, and is grade II listed. The lock-keepers cottage at Sandiacre Lock also dates from around the time of the opening of the canal, and although it has additional windows added in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, most of it is original.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>Badbury Rings is an Iron Age hill fort in east Dorset, England. It was in the territory of the Durotriges. In the Roman era a temple was located immediately west of the fort, and there was a Romano-British town known as Vindocladia a short distance to the south-west.</p><br>
<h2>Iron Age</h2><br>
<p>Badbury Rings sits 327 ft above sea level. There are two main phases of construction; the first covered 7.3 hectare and was defended by multiple ditches, while the second was more than twice the size, covering 16.6 hectare and defended by a single ditch and rampart. Bronze Age round barrows in the vicinity demonstrate an earlier use of the area.</p><br>
<p>Until 1983 Badbury Rings was privately owned as part of the Kingston Lacy estate, and the owners discouraged investigation of the site. The site now belongs to the National Trust. The summit area was cleared of undergrowth by the National Trust in 1997 and the conifer plantation was thinned out. although some depressions are probably caused by uprooted trees. The current evidence does not suggest that the hillfort was a principal settlement in the Early Iron Age.</p><br>
<p>Badbury Rings is the fifth in a series of Iron Age earthworks, starting from Hambledon Hill, and also including Hod Hill, Spetisbury Rings, Buzbury Rings, Badbury Rings and Dudsbury Camp. The Iron Age port at Hengistbury Head forms a final Iron Age monument in this small chain of sites.</p><br>
<h2>Roman roads</h2><br>
<p>During the Roman era, five Roman roads formed a complex junction on the north side of Badbury Rings.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Conquest of Britain began in AD 43. It is likely that the Legio II Augusta campaigned in Dorset under the command of the future emperor Vespasian. About 4 km southeast of Badbury Rings, at Lake Farm near Wimborne, a fort was established. A military road from the Lake Farm fort was created which passed by the northeast side of Badbury Rings. Beyond Badbury Rings the road headed in a northwest direction (visible today as a thin strip of woodland) heading for the Roman fort at Hod Hill. Another road ran across country in a north by northwest direction towards Bath (Aquae Sulis)., and another ran south to a small port in Poole Harbour (Moriconium, modern Hamworthy). The final road (still used as a modern trackway on the west side of Badbury Rings) ran in a southwest direction through the settlement of Vindocladia heading towards Dorchester (Durnovaria). This final road was not built until the later Roman period.</p><br>
<h2>Romano-Celtic temple</h2><br>
<p>Immediately west of Badbury Rings is the site of a Romano-Celtic temple. It is located within a polygonal boundary bank visible on aerial photographs. It was excavated as early as 1900, and again in 1952. These excavations revealed stone roofing slabs, painted wall-plaster, and over 185 Roman coins, as well as 21 Durotrigian silver and bronze coins.</p><br>
<h2>Vindocladia</h2><br>
<p>A short distance to the southwest of Badbury Rings, between the hillfort and the modern village of Shapwick, lay a small Romano-British town, believed to be that listed in the Antonine Itinerary as Vindocladia (from Brittonic *windos "white" + *klādiyos "ditch, earthwork"). In the later Roman period, a small fort was also established on the east side of the town. The fort was only discovered in 1975, and the existence of the town only came to light in the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>It has long been known that there was Roman activity in the area. A Roman pit and occupation debris were discovered in 1954 in the village of Shapwick, which included Samian ware pottery, a bronze coin of Claudius, and a rim fragment of a mortarium. In 1990 an archaeological field survey revealed three areas of building debris including roof and flue tiles, tesserae, and 2nd–4th century pottery. Excavations, led by Martin Papworth, took place in 1991, 1995, and 2004. The 1991 excavations uncovered robber trenches, tesserae, pottery, painted wall plaster and evidence for ironworking. and uncovered smithing hearths dating from the second century. They further demonstrated that the Roman road through the settlement and the associated fort were not built until the later Roman period. Excavation of the settlement&#39;s boundary ditch in 2004 uncovered early first-century pottery, including a Samian-ware platter, as well as a first-century brooch.</p><br>
<p>The evidence suggests that the settlement began as a pre-Roman village or town of the late Iron-Age which continued in use in the Roman period. Coins and pottery recovered from the site show that it was occupied until at least the 5th century. A geophysical survey of the entire settlement has shown that the site covers 25 hectares. It appears to have been one of the biggest Roman towns in Dorset, second only to Dorchester (Durnovaria). It is likely that the town was the Vindocladia listed in the Antonine Itinerary as the only named place between Old Sarum (Sorviodunum) and Dorchester.</p><br>
<p>The Roman fort is a rectangular enclosure with straight sides and rounded corners, surrounded by triple ditches. It measures around and encloses about. It is located on the east side of the town. Pottery picked up on the ground in 1975 suggested a mid 1st-century date for the fort. However, the subsequent excavations have revealed that the fort was not built until the later Roman period, and that the fort went out of use at the end of the Roman era. The fort contained a large building complex, and may have been the site of an imperial inn, or mansio.</p><br>
<h2>Saxon era</h2><br>
<p>Finds of late Roman material within the hillfort indicate that Badbury Rings was reoccupied, perhaps as security declined in the post-Roman period. The ancient frontier of Bokerley Dyke to the northeast was revived and may have played a role in keeping the invading Saxons out of Dorset during the 5th and 6th centuries.</p><br>
<p>The identification of Badbury Rings with Battle of Mount Badon (first mentioned by Gildas) was reported in the 19th century by John Hutchins as originating with a supposition by the eminent Dr Edwin Guest in the Salisbury Volume of the Archaeological Institute. Local historian Roy Carr has suggested that the Saxons were held off from crossing Bokerley Dyke, by the threat of an army in the west, perhaps stationed at Badbury Rings. Badbury Rings is one of three sites regularly advanced as the location of this quasi-mythical battle, with the city of Bath also recognised as a contender.</p><br>
<p>Edward the Elder brought an army to Badbury, soon after his succession to the throne in 899, to face down a challenge to his claim for the crown by his cousin Æthelwold, based at nearby Wimborne Minster.</p><br>
<h2>Antiquarian accounts</h2><br>
<p>The Tudor antiquarian John Leland visited Badbury Rings during his Itinerary of England conducted between 1538 and 1543. After speaking about the nearby town of Wimborne Minster he wrote:</p><br>
<h2>The site today</h2><br>
<p>The site, on the dip slope of Cranborne Chase, is now part of the Kingston Lacy estate owned by the National Trust since 1982, with free access. On a clear day, the Isle of Wight is visible from the top.</p><br>
<h2>Citations</h2><br>
<p>The Soko Islands are a group of islands in Hong Kong. The group consists of Tai A Chau, Siu A Chau and several smaller nearby islands, in the southwestermost waters of the territory, to the southwest of Lantau Island.</p><br>
<p>Now largely uninhabited, the islands formerly accommodated a refugee camp for Vietnamese boat people. CLP Power is currently proposing them as the site for a terminal to receive liquefied natural gas (LNG) for use in electricity generation. This proposal is opposed by local environmental groups because the surrounding waters are an important habitat for various marine species, particularly the rare Chinese White Dolphin.</p><br>
<p>The islands of the group are:</p><br>
<p>Cheung Muk Tau (樟木頭)</p><br>
<p>Ko Pai (高排)</p><br>
<p>Lung Shuen Pai (龍船排)</p><br>
<p>Ma Chau (孖洲)</p><br>
<p>Shek Chau (石洲)</p><br>
<p>Siu A Chau (小鴉洲)</p><br>
<p>Tai A Chau (大鴉洲)</p><br>
<p>Tau Lo Chau (頭顱洲)</p><br>
<p>Wan Hau Chau (灣口洲)</p><br>
<p>Yuen Chau (圓洲)</p><br>
<p>Yuen Kong Chau (圓崗洲)</p><br>
<p></text></p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>The Heart Mountain War Relocation Center, named after nearby Heart Mountain and located midway between the towns of Cody and Powell in northwest Wyoming, was one of ten concentration camps used for the internment of Japanese Americans evicted from the West Coast Exclusion Zone during World War II by executive order from President Franklin Roosevelt after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941.</p><br>
<p>This site was managed before the war by the federal Bureau of Reclamation for a major irrigation project. Construction of the 650 military-style barracks and surrounding guard towers began in June 1942, and the camp opened on August 11, when the first Japanese Americans arrived by train from the Pomona, Santa Anita, and Portland assembly centers. The camp would hold a total of 13,997 Japanese Americans over the next three years, with a peak population of 10,767, making it the third-largest "town" in Wyoming before it closed on November 10, 1945.</p><br>
<p>Heart Mountain is best known for many of its younger residents challenging the controversial draft of Nisei males from camp in order to highlight the loss of their rights through the incarceration. The Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee, led by Frank Emi and several others, was particularly active in this resistance, encouraging internees to refuse military induction until they and their families were released from camp and had their civil rights restored. Heart Mountain had the highest rate of draft resistance of all ten camps, with 85 young men and seven Fair Play Committee leaders ultimately sentenced and imprisoned for Selective Service Act violations. (At the same time, 800 Japanese American men — volunteers and draftees — joined the American military from Heart Mountain. In 1944, internees dedicated an Honor Roll listing the names of these soldiers, located near the camps main gate.)</p><br>
<p>In 1988 and 1992 Congress passed laws to apologize to Japanese Americans for the injustices during the war and to pay compensation to survivors of the camps and their descendants. The site of the Heart Mountain War Relocation Center is considered to retain the highest integrity of the ten incarceration centers constructed during World War II. The street grid and numerous foundations are still visible. Four of the original barracks survive in place. A number of others sold and moved after the war have been identified in surrounding counties and may one day be returned to their original locations. In early 2007, 124 acre of the center were listed as a National Historic Landmark. The Federal Bureau of Reclamation owns 74 acre within the landmark boundary and currently administers the site. The remaining 50 acre were purchased by the Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation, a nonprofit organization established in 1996 to memorialize the centers internees and to interpret the sites historical significance.</p><br>
<p>The Foundation runs the Heart Mountain Interpretive Center, opened in 2011, located at 1539 Road 19, Powell. The museum includes photographs, artifacts, oral histories and interactive exhibits about the wartime relocation of Japanese Americans, anti-Asian prejudice in America and the factors leading to their enforced relocation and confinement.</p><br>
<h2>Establishing the camp</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-war history</h3><br>
<p>The land that would become the Heart Mountain War Relocation Center was originally part of the Shoshone Project, an irrigation project under the auspices of the Bureau of Reclamation. In 1897, 120,000 acre of land surrounding the Shoshone River in northwestern Wyoming was purchased by William "Buffalo Bill" Cody and Nate Salisbury, who in May 1899 acquired water rights to irrigate 60,000 acre surrounding Cody, Wyoming. After the project proved too costly for the original investors, the Wyoming State Board of Land Commissioners petitioned the federal government to take it over. The rights for the Cody-Salisbury tract were transferred to the Secretary of the Interior in 1904 and the Shoshone Project was approved later that year as one of the earliest Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) projects.</p><br>
<p>In 1937 during the Great Depression, the BOR used private contractors and Civilian Conservation Corps laborers to begin construction on the Shoshone Canyon Conduit and the Heart Mountain Canal, as one of a number of governmental infrastructure projects. The conduit, spanning 2.8 miles, was completed in September 1938. Construction on the unfinished canal stopped after the United States entered World War II.</p><br>
<h3>Executive Order 9066</h3><br>
<p>Shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which authorized military commanders to create zones from which "any or all persons may be excluded." The War Department had requested this and designated Western Washington and Oregon, southern Arizona, and all of California as Exclusion Zones in March 1942. It defined Japanese Americans, Italian Americans and German Americans as peoples to be excluded from these areas. Soon after the War Department initiated the removal of over 110,000 Japanese Americans from these areas, forcing them into temporary "assembly centers" run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration. Typically, these centers were hastily converted large public spaces, such as fairgrounds and horse racing tracks, while construction on Heart Mountain and the other more permanent "relocation centers" were completed.</p><br>
<h3>Building Heart Mountain</h3><br>
<p>On May 23, 1942, the War Department announced that one of the camps for displaced Japanese Americans would be located in Wyoming, and several communities, hoping to capitalize on internee labor for irrigation and land development projects, vied for the site. Heart Mountain was chosen because it was remote yet convenient, isolated from the nearest towns but close to fresh water and adjacent to a railroad spur and depot where Japanese Americans, as well as food and supplies, could be off-loaded.</p><br>
<p>On June 1, 1942, the Bureau of Reclamation transferred 46,000 acre of the Heart Mountain Irrigation Project and several CCC buildings to the War Relocation Authority, the branch of the Western Defense Command responsible for administration of the incarceration program. More than 2,000 laborers, including men employed by the Harza Engineering Company of Chicago and the Hamilton Bridge Company of Kansas City, began work on June 8, under the direction of the Army Corps of Engineers. The workers enclosed 740 acre of arid buffalo grass and sagebrush with a high barbed wire fence and nine guard towers. Within this perimeter, 650 military-style barracks were laid out in a street grid, with administrative, hospital, educational, and utility facilities, and 468 residential dormitories to house the internees.</p><br>
<p>All of the buildings were electrified, which was at the time a rarity in Wyoming, but due to time constraints and a largely unskilled workforce, the majority of these "buildings" were poorly constructed. Army higher-ups gave the site&#39;s chief engineer only sixty days to complete the project, and newspaper ads recruiting laborers promised jobs "if you can drive a nail" while workers boasted that it took them only 58 minutes to build an apartment barracks. Thousands of acres of surrounding land were designated for agricultural purposes, as the center was expected for the most part to be self-sufficient.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<h3>Life in camp</h3><br>
<p>The first inmates arrived in Heart Mountain on August 12, 1942: 6,448 from Los Angeles County; 2,572 from Santa Clara County; 678 from San Francisco; and 843 from Yakima County in Washington. Each barracks unit contained one light, a wood-burning stove, and an army cot and two blankets for each member of the family. Bathrooms and laundry facilities were located in shared utility halls, and meals were served in communal mess halls, both assigned by block. Armed military police manned the nine guard towers surrounding the camp.</p><br>
<p>Leadership positions in Heart Mountain were occupied by European-American administrators, although Nisei block managers and Issei councilmen were elected by the inmate population and participated, in a limited capacity, in administration of the camp. Employment opportunities were available in the hospital, camp schools and mess halls, as well as the garment factory, cabinet shop, sawmill and silk screen shop run by camp officials, although most inmates received a rather paltry salary of $12–$19 a month, due to the WRA&#39;s decision that the Japanese could not earn more than an army private regardless of job. (Caucasian nurses in the Heart Mountain hospital, for example, were paid $150/month compared to the $19/month given Japanese-American doctors) Additionally, some inmates worked on the unfinished Heart Mountain Canal for the Bureau of Reclamation, or did agricultural work outside the camp.</p><br>
<p>Children of inmates began school in barrack classrooms in October 1942. Books, school supplies, and furniture were limited. Despite the poor condition of the facilities, attending school offered a sense of normalcy to camp children. In May 1943, the camp high school had been constructed, and the elementary school restructured. The high school, which educated 1,500 students in its first year, featured regular classrooms, a gymnasium and library. Its sports team, including its football team, The Heart Mountain Eagles, eventually competed against other local high school teams.</p><br>
<p>Other sporting events, movie theaters, religious services, crafting groups, and social clubs kept inmates entertained and provided a distraction from the dullness of camp life. Knitting, sewing, and woodcarving were popular not only for entertainment, but because they allowed inmates to improve their dilapidated living conditions. Among children, Girl and Boy Scout programs flourished, as many Nisei had been members before internment. Heart Mountain&#39;s thirteen scout troops and two Cub Scout packs were the most of any of the ten camps. Scouts participated in normal scouting activities such as hiking, craft making, and swimming.</p><br>
<h3>Draft resistance</h3><br>
<p>In early 1943, camp officials began to administer a "Leave Clearance Form," better known as the loyalty questionnaire because of two controversial questions that tried to distinguish loyal and disloyal Japanese Americans. Question 27 asked whether men would be willing to serve in the armed forces, while Question 28 asked inmates to forswear all allegiance to the Emperor of Japan. Many, confused by the questionnaires wording, fearing it was a trick and any answer would be misconstrued, or, offended by the questions implications, answered "no" to one or both questions, or gave a qualified response like, "I will serve when I am free." Soon after, Kiyoshi Okamoto organized the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee to protest the infringement of Nisei citizen rights, and Frank Emi, Paul Nakadate and others began posting fliers around camp encouraging others not to respond to the questions.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the Army&#39;s previous restrictions against Nisei (listed as enemy aliens ineligible for active service after Pearl Harbor) were lifted in order to create a segregated unit of Japanese-American volunteers. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team began active duty in Europe and northern Africa in 1944, and quickly became known as the "Go For Broke" unit because of the degree to which its soldiers risked their lives in battle. The most highly decorated unit in the war (and to this day, for its size and length of service), it also suffered an extremely high casualty rate and soon required replacement troops. When fewer than 1,200 Nisei volunteered for service from the USA mainland (compared to 10,000 from Hawaii, where the great majority of Japanese Americans remained free), camp inmates were added to the draft pool to fill the gap. While some Japanese Americans welcomed the opportunity to prove their loyalty to the country of their birth, others saw it as a further insult.</p><br>
<p>When draft orders began arriving in Heart Mountain, Emi, Okamoto and the other leaders of the Fair Play Committee held public meetings to discuss the unconstitutionality of the incarceration and encourage other inmates to refuse military service until their freedom was restored. On March 25, 1944, twelve Heart Mountain resisters who had not reported for their draft physicals were arrested by USA Marshals. Emi and two other Committee members who had not received draft notices (due to their age or domestic status) tried to walk out of camp to highlight their status as prisoners of the government.</p><br>
<p>In July 1944, in the largest mass trial in Wyoming history, sixty-three Heart Mountain inmates were prosecuted after refusing to show up for their induction and convicted of felony draft evasion. A total of 300 draft resisters from eight WRA camps, including an additional 22 from Heart Mountain sentenced in a subsequent trial, were arrested for this charge, and most served time in federal prison. The seven older leaders of the Fair Play Committee were convicted of conspiracy to violate the Selective Service Act and sentenced to four years in federal prison. While the Poston concentration camp in Arizona had the highest number of resisters of any camp, at 106, Heart Mountain&#39;s 85 resisters from a much smaller population gave it the highest overall rate of draft resistance.</p><br>
<p>Although Heart Mountain is remembered primarily for its organized resistance to the draft, approximately 800 Nisei joined the USA Army from this camp, either volunteering or accepting their conscription into the famed 442nd. Fifteen of these young men were killed in action and fifty-two wounded. Joe Hayashi and James K. Okubo posthumously received the Medal of Honor for valor in battle, making Heart Mountain the only one of the ten WRA camps to have more than one Medal of Honor recipient. The original Honor Roll is being conserved and restored.</p><br>
<h3>The end of the war</h3><br>
<p>By the time Roosevelt rescinded Executive Order 9066 in December 1944 and announced that Japanese Americans could begin returning to the West Coast the following month, many had already left camp, most for outside work or to attend college in the Midwest or East Coast. Beginning in January 1945, internees began to leave Heart Mountain for the West Coast, provided by administrators with $25 and a one-way train ticket to the location they had been picked up from three years earlier. However, even with the earlier group of resettlers, only 2,000 had left by June 1945, and the 7,000 still remaining within Heart Mountain for the most part represented those who were too young or too old to easily relocate. Many Japanese Americans, barred from owning their pre-war homes and farms by discriminatory legislation, had nothing to return to on the West Coast, but they were prohibited from homesteading in Wyoming by an alien land law passed by the state legislature in 1943 (a law that remained in place until 2001). Another Wyoming law excluding them from voting further discouraged Japanese Americans from staying in Wyoming. The last trainload of former inmates left Heart Mountain on November 10, 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation and remembrance</h2><br>
<p>After Heart Mountain closed, most of the land, barracks and agricultural equipment were sold to farmers and former servicemen, who established homesteads on and around the camp site. The Heart Mountain Irrigation Project continued after the war, and much of the camp&#39;s surrounding acreage was tilled for irrigation agriculture. Remnants of the hospital complex (including foundations and 3 buildings), a Heart Mountain High School storage shed, a root cellar, the Honor Roll World War II Memorial and a portion of a remodeled barrack are the only buildings still standing today.</p><br>
<p>The Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation, established in 1996, has worked to preserve and memorialize the site and events, educate the general public about the Japanese American incarceration, and support research about the incarceration so that future generations can understand the lessons of the Japanese American incarceration experience. The Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation is overseen by a 16-member Board of Directors and is led by the Chair, Shirley Ann Higuchi, a descendent of former internees. The board also includes former internees, scholars, and other professionals working on the local and national level. The Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation gained National Historic Landmark status for the site in 2007 and on August 20, 2011 opened the Heart Mountain Interpretive Center. The Center features a permanent exhibit that provides an overview of the history of the wartime incarceration of Japanese Americans and the background of anti-Asian prejudice in America that led to it. Along with additional rotating exhibits, these photographs, artifacts and oral histories explore the incarceration experience, constitutional and civil rights issues, and the broader issues of race and social justice in America. Visitors can also participate in a walking tour of the site and its remaining structures. Former USA Secretary of Transportation Norman Y. Mineta and retired USA Senator Alan K. Simpson, who met as Boy Scouts on opposite sides of the barbed wire fence surrounding the Heart Mountain compound, act as Honorary Advisors to the Foundation.</p><br>
<p>The Foundation hosts an annual pilgrimage at Heart Mountain, the first of which coincided with the Interpretive Center&#39;s 2011 opening.</p><br>
<h2>Terminology</h2><br>
<p>Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Heart Mountain and the other camps in which Japanese Americans were incarcerated by the United States Government during the war. Heart Mountain has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," "internment camp," "incarceration camp," and "concentration camp," and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day. Scholars and activists both have criticized internment camp as euphemistic, as Japanese Americans were not there for their protection and could not leave.</p><br>
<h2>Notable internees</h2><br>
<p>Hideo Date (1907&ndash;2005), a painter</p><br>
<p>Kathryn Doi (born 1942), Associate Justice of the California Second District Court of Appeals.</p><br>
<p>Frank S. Emi (1916&ndash;2010), Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee leader and civil rights activist.</p><br>
<p>Sadamitsu "S. Neil" Fujita (1921&ndash;2010), graphic designer who served in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team.</p><br>
<p>Evelyn Nakano Glenn, a professor of Gender & Women Studies and of Ethnic Studies at the University of California, Berkeley and founding director of the Center for Race and Gender (CRG). Also interned at Gila River.</p><br>
<p>Joe Hayashi (1920&ndash;1945), 442nd RCT volunteer posthumously awarded Medal of Honor.</p><br>
<p>Bill Hosokawa (1915&ndash;2007), author and journalist, editor of the camp newspaper "Heart Mountain Sentinel."</p><br>
<p>Estelle Ishigo (née Peck), an American artist married to a Nisei.</p><br>
<p>George Ishiyama (1914&ndash;2003), businessman and former president of Alaska Pulp Corporation. Also interned at Topaz.</p><br>
<p>Lincoln Kanai (1908—1982), social worker and civil rights activist who brought a legal challenge to the eviction of Japanese Americans from the West Coast.</p><br>
<p>Kiyoshi Kuromiya (1943&ndash;2000), an author and civil and social justice advocate.</p><br>
<p>Yosh Kuromiya (born 1923), Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee member who resisted the draft on constitutional grounds and promotes understanding of the Nisei draft resisters in film and public forums.</p><br>
<p>Robert Kuwahara (1901&ndash;1964), animator.</p><br>
<p>Norman Mineta (born 1931), United States Secretary of Transportation under George W. Bush and United States Secretary of Commerce under Bill Clinton.</p><br>
<p>Lane Nakano (1925&ndash;2005), American soldier turned actor</p><br>
<p>Fusataro Nakaya (born 1886), medical doctor (1916 graduate of University of Illinois Medical College), member of California Medical Association, Vice President of Los Angeles Japanese Association</p><br>
<p>Shigeki Oka (1878&ndash;1959), Issei newspaper publisher who was recruited by the British Armed Forces in World War II.</p><br>
<p>James K. Okubo (1920&ndash;1967), 442nd RCT veteran posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.</p><br>
<p>Albert Saijo (1926&ndash;2011), poet</p><br>
<p>Nyogen Senzaki (1876&ndash;1958), Rinzai Zen monk who was one of the 20th century&#39;s leading proponents of Zen Buddhism in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Road is a scenic mountain road in the Rocky Mountains of the western United States, in Glacier National Park in Montana. The Sun Road, as it is sometimes abbreviated in National Park Service documents, is the only road that traverses the park crossing the Continental Divide through Logan Pass at an elevation of 6,646 feet , which is the highest point on the road. The road is the first to have been registered in all of the following categories: National Historic Place, National Historic Landmark The length of the road is approximately 50 miles  and spans the width of the park between the east and west entrance stations. The National Historic Landmark Nomination records a slightly shorter distance of 48.7 miles which is measured from the first main intersection just outside the park&#39;s west entrance to Divide Creek in St. Mary on the east side of the park.</p><br>
<p>The road is one of the most difficult roads in North America to snowplow in the spring. Up to 80 ft of snow can lie on top of Logan Pass, and more just east of the pass where the deepest snowfield has long been referred to as the Big Drift. The road takes about ten weeks to plow, even with equipment that can move 4,000 tons of snow in an hour. The snowplow crew can clear as little as 500 ft of the road per day. On the east side of the Continental Divide, there are few guardrails due to heavy snows and the resultant late winter avalanches that have repeatedly destroyed every protective barrier ever constructed. The road is generally open from early June to mid October, with its late opening on July 13, 2011 marking the record for the latest opening since the inaugural date of July 15, 1933.</p><br>
<p>The two lane Going-to-the-Sun Road is quite narrow and winding with hairpin turns, especially west of Logan Pass. Consequently, vehicle lengths over the highest portions of the roadway are limited to no longer than 21 ft and no wider than 8 ft between Avalanche Creek and Rising Sun picnic areas which are located many miles below Logan Pass, on the west and east sides of the pass, respectively. Vehicles over 10 ft in height may not have sufficient clearance due to rock overhangs when driving west between Logan Pass and the hairpin turn called the Loop.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the construction of the road, visitors would need to spend several days traveling through the central part of the park, an area which can now be traversed within a few hours, excluding any stops for sightseeing or construction. The speed limits are 45 mph in the lower elevations and 25 mph in the steeper and winding alpine sections.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The road is named after Going-to-the-Sun Mountain which dominates the eastbound view beyond Logan Pass. One Native American legend concerns the deity Sour Spirit who came down from the sun to teach the Blackfeet the basics of hunting. While returning to the sun, an image of Sour Spirit was placed on the mountain as an inspiration for the Blackfeet. Another story has suggested that a late-19th-century Euro-American explorer provided the mountain&#39;s name and the legend.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Road is notable as one of the first National Park Service projects specifically intended to accommodate the automobile-borne tourist. The road was first conceived by superintendent George Goodwin in 1917, who became the chief engineer of the Park Service the following year. As chief engineer, the new road became Goodwin&#39;s primary project, and construction began in 1921.</p><br>
<p>As the project proceeded, Goodwin lost influence with National Park Service director Stephen Mather, who favored landscape architect Thomas Chalmers Vints alternative routing of the upper portion of the road along the Garden Wall escarpment. Vints alignment reduced both switchbacks and the roads visual impact, at increased cost. With Goodwins resignation, Vint&#39;s proposal became the preferred alignment. The entire project was finally opened from end to end in 1933, at a cost of $2.5 million.</p><br>
<h2>Repairs</h2><br>
<p>A restoration project by the National Park Service and the Federal Highway Administration has been repairing road damage from many avalanches and rock slides over the years. The repairs, which started in the 1980s and continue to the present day when weather permits, include fixing retaining walls, replacing the original pavement with reinforced concrete, and work on tunnels, bridges, culverts and overlooks.</p><br>
<h2>Buses</h2><br>
<p>A fleet of vintage 1930s red buses, modernized in 2001 and called Red Jammers, or simply “Reds“, continue the tradition of offering guided tours along the road. The original bus drivers became affectionately known as “Gear Jammers” or simply “Jammers“ since they had to jam the manual gearbox into low to safely negotiate the steepest road sections. Modern-style shuttle buses for shorter trips and Blackfeet tour buses operate on the road as well.</p><br>
<h2>Cinematic appearances</h2><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Road is shown in the opening credits of the 1980 film The Shining, as aerial flybys of Wild Goose Island and the protagonist&#39;s car traveling along the north shore of Saint Mary Lake, through the East Side tunnel and onward, going to a mountain resort hotel for his job interview as a winter caretaker.</p><br>
<p>The road is also seen briefly in the 1994 film Forrest Gump. As Forrest reminisces with Jenny he remembers running across the USA and remarks, "Like that mountain lake. It was so clear, Jenny. It looked like there were two skies, one on top of the other." The shots in the background are Going-to-the-Sun Road and Saint Mary Lake.</p><br>
<p>The Dobson River is a river in the South Island of New Zealand. It flows south between the Neumann and Ohau ranges for 45 km from its source to the east of Mount Hopkins, in the Southern Alps, before joining with the Hopkins River, close to the latter&#39;s entry into the northern end of Lake Ohau in the Mackenzie Country. The river flows over wide shingle beds, and has no rapids of interest to whitewater enthusiasts. It was named by Julius von Haast in the 1860s for his father-in-law, Edward Dobson, who was the Canterbury Provincial Engineer.</p><br>
<p>The New Zealand Department of Conservation maintains a tramping track and several backcountry huts in the river valley. Two of the huts are accessible by 4WD vehicle.</p><br>
<p>There is no direct geographical link with the West Coast town of Dobson.</p><br>
<p>Lake Pukaki is the largest of three roughly parallel alpine lakes running north-south along the northern edge of the Mackenzie Basin on New Zealand&#39;s South Island. The others are Lakes Tekapo and Ohau. All three lakes were created when the terminal moraines of receding glaciers blocked their respective valleys, forming moraine-dammed lakes.</p><br>
<p>The glacial feed to the lakes gives them a distinctive blue colour, created by glacial flour, the extremely finely ground rock particles from the glaciers.</p><br>
<p>Lake Pukaki covers an area of 178.7 km², and the surface elevation of the lake normally ranges from 518.2 to 532 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The lake is fed at its northern end by the braided Tasman River, which has its source in the Tasman and Hooker Glaciers, close to Aoraki / Mount Cook. Good views of the mountain, 70 kilometres to the north can be had from the southern shore of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake is now part of the Waitaki hydroelectric scheme.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s original outflow was at its southern end, into the Pukaki River.</p><br>
<p>The outflow has been dammed, and canals carry water from Lake Pukaki and Lake Ohau through the Ohau A power station to Lake Ruataniwha.</p><br>
<p>Pukaki is also fed by the waters of Lake Tekapo, which are diverted through a canal to a power station on Pukakis eastern shore (Tekapo B station). The lake has been raised twice to increase storage capacity (9m in 1952, and 37m in 1976 ), submerging Five Pound Note Island, which once appeared on New Zealands five pound note. The current lake has an operating range of 13.8 m (the level within which it can be artificially raised or lowered), giving it an energy storage capacity of 1,595 GWh. Along with Lake Tekapos 770 GWh storage, it provides over half New Zealands hydroelectricity storage capacity. In September 2012, Environment Canterbury approved a change in conditions of Meridian Energy&#39;s resource consent controlling the water levels and flows of Lake Pukaki. The change allows Meridian to lower the lake a further five metres from the minimum level of 518m above sea level in the event of an energy crisis.</p><br>
<p>The closest town to Lake Pukaki is Twizel, 7 km to the south of the lake. State Highway 8 skirts the southern end of the lake, and State Highway 80 runs north along the length of its western shore, to Mount Cook Village in the Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tekapo is the second-largest of three roughly parallel lakes running north&ndash;south along the northern edge of the Mackenzie Basin in the South Island of New Zealand . It covers an area of 83 km&sup2, and is at an altitude of 710 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The lake is fed at its northern end by the braided Godley River, which has its source in the Southern Alps to the north. The lake is a popular tourist destination, and several resort hotels are located at the township of Lake Tekapo at the lake&#39;s southern end. The Lake Tekapo Regional Park, administered by Environment Canterbury, is located on the southern shore of the lake.</p><br>
<p>An astronomical observatory is located at Mount John, which is to the north of the town, and south of the small Lake Alexandrina.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectricity</h2><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s original outflow was at its southern end, into the Tekapo River. In 1938 construction commenced on a power station, originally due to be finished in 1943 but halted in 1942 by the world war. At the same time, control gates were constructed to regulate outflows to the Waitaki Dam downstream. Work restarted in 1944, and the power station now known as "Tekapo A" came online in 1951.</p><br>
<p>Water from the lake is diverted through a 1.4 km tunnel under the town to the power station, with the water originally being returned to the river. With development of the Upper Waitaki hydroelectric scheme in the 1970s, water is now fed into a 26 km canal which leads to Tekapo B on the shores of Lake Pukaki.</p><br>
<p>Following a turbine failure in 1986, a new Kaplan turbine was installed, with a more efficient design and higher output (42 000 HP) than the original. Today, the power station produces an average of 160 GWh annually, from a 25.2 MW capacity generator. The net head of the station is 30.5 m.</p><br>
<p>In 2008 Tekapo A and Tekapo B hydro stations were refurbished following the upgrade of Benmore and Waitaki.</p><br>
<p>On 1 June 2011, Tekapo A and B hydro power stations were transferred from Meridian Energy to Genesis Energy on instruction from the Government.</p><br>
<h2>Church of the Good Shepherd</h2><br>
<p>Situated on the shores of Lake Tekapo is the Church of the Good Shepherd, which, in 1935, was the first church built in the Mackenzie Basin. The church at Lake Tekapo was designed by Christchurch architect R.S.D. Harman, based on sketches by a local artist, Esther Hope. The church is arguably one of the most photographed in New Zealand, and features an altar window that frames views of the lake and mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Bronze sheepdog</h2><br>
<p>Close to the Church of the Good Shepherd is a well-known bronze statue of a New Zealand Collie sheepdog. The statue was commissioned by Mackenzie Country residents in recognition of the indispensable role of the sheepdog in their livelihoods. The sculptor was Innes Elliott of Kaikoura, with a dog called Haig, belonging to a neighbour, being the model. Elliott reported the sculpting process took approximately fifteen months. Clay for the model came from the insulator works in Temuka, with a plaster cast of it made and sent to London in 1966, where the statue was cast.</p><br>
<h2>Skifield</h2><br>
<p>On the north side of the lake, 24km from the Tekapo township is the Roundhill Ski Area, which caters primarily to beginner and intermediate skiers.</p><br>
<p>Wootton Creek is a tidal estuary that flows into the Solent on the north coast of the Isle of Wight.</p><br>
<p>On the west bank of the creek is the village of Wootton, whilst on the east bank is the village of Fishbourne. The estuary is bridged by the main Ryde to Newport road, where there once was a tide mill. The estuary is not navigable south of the bridge, and tide controls means that water is retained south of the bridge most of the time.</p><br>
<p>On the side of the estuary there is a Forestry Commission woodland called "Firestone Copse" which is about 30 acre in size.</p><br>
<p>The estuary has also been known in the past as "Fishbourne Creek", "Wootton River" and "Wootton Haven". At the mouth of the estuary is the Wightlink car ferry terminal for connections to Portsmouth.</p><br>
<p>Since 1993 Wootton Creek and the adjacent Ryde Sands have been designated as SSSIs due to their wide range of intertidal sand flats.</p><br>
<p>Campbeltown Loch  is a small sea loch near the south of the Kintyre Peninsula facing eastwards towards the Firth of Clyde. The town of Campbeltown, from which it takes its name, is located at its head. The island of Davaar is located in the loch, and can be reach by foot along a natural shingle causeway at low tide. Oddly, while in English the Loch takes its name from Campbeltown, in Gaelic, Campbeltown takes its name from the loch - "Ceann Loch Chille Chiarain".</p><br>
<h2>The song</h2><br>
<p>The loch is immortalised in the folk song of the same name, repopularized by Andy Stewart in the 1960s. In the song (see below) the writer Alan Cameron expresses his desire that the loch be full of whisky. The basis of that ballad is that Campbeltown was originally a centre of whisky distilling but that the price of whisky in Campbeltown itself was too high.</p><br>
<p>Campbeltown Loch is sung to a march written for the bagpipes, The Glendaruel Highlanders.</p><br>
<p>The Arrochar Alps are a group of mountains located around the head of Loch Long, Loch Fyne,and Loch Goil, near the villages of Arrochar and Lochgoilhead, on the Cowal Peninsula in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The mountains are especially popular with hillwalkers, due to their proximity and accessibility from Glasgow. They are largely within the Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park and in part also extend into the Argyll Forest Park. Glens which go into the heart of the range include: Glen Croe, Hell&#39;s Glen and Glen Kinglass.</p><br>
<h2>List</h2><br>
<p>The list below includes the Munros, Munro Tops, Corbetts, Corbett Tops and Grahams.</p><br>
<p>Munros:</p><br>
<p>Beinn Ìme, 1011m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Bhuidhe, 948m</p><br>
<p>Ben Vorlich, 943m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Narnain, 926m</p><br>
<p>Ben Vane, 915m</p><br>
<p>Munro Tops:</p><br>
<p>Ben Vorlich (North Top, 931m</p><br>
<p>Corbetts:</p><br>
<p>Beinn an Lochain, 901m</p><br>
<p>The Cobbler (Ben Arthur) 884m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Luibhean, 857m</p><br>
<p>Ben Donich, 847m</p><br>
<p>Binnein an Fhidhleir, 817m</p><br>
<p>The Brack, 787m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Bheula, 779m</p><br>
<p>Cnoc Coinnich, 763m</p><br>
<p>Corbett Tops:</p><br>
<p>The Cobbler (North Peak, 870m</p><br>
<p>The Cobbler (South Top), 858m</p><br>
<p>A&#39; Chrois, 848m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Chorranach, 848m</p><br>
<p>Little Hills, 808m</p><br>
<p>The Brack (West), 787m</p><br>
<p>Creag Tharsuinn, 781m</p><br>
<p>Ben Vorlich (South Top), 780m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Dubh, 773m</p><br>
<p>Grahams</p><br>
<p>Stob an Eas, 732m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Lochain, 703m</p><br>
<p>Stob na Boine Druim-fhinn, 658m</p><br>
<p>Cruach nam Mult, 611m</p><br>
<p>Other Mountains</p><br>
<p>Mullach Coire a&#39; Chuir, 639m</p><br>
<p>Cruach nan Capull, 565m</p><br>
<p>Cruach Tairbeirt, 1362 ft, 415m</p><br>
<p>Beinn Reithe, 2061 ft</p><br>
<p>The Saddle (Lochgoilhead), 521m</p><br>
<p>Clach Bheinn (Lochgoilhead), 437m</p><br>
<p>Tom Molach, 370m</p><br>
<p>Carn Glas, 502m</p><br>
<p>Tom nan Gamhna, 389m</p><br>
<p>The Steeple (Lochgoilhead), 390m</p><br>
<p>Cruach nam Miseag, 606m</p><br>
<h2>Areas of the Arrochar Alps</h2><br>
<p>Tarbet (Eastern Gateway alongside Ardlui and Arrochar)</p><br>
<p>Arrochar (Eastern Gateway alongside Ardlui and Tarbet</p><br>
<p>Ardgartan</p><br>
<p>Rest and be thankful</p><br>
<p>Butterbridge</p><br>
<p>Cairndow</p><br>
<p>Ardno</p><br>
<p>St Catherines</p><br>
<p>Strachur (South Western Gateway)</p><br>
<p>Lochgoilhead (Heart of the range as it sits on the southern range of mountains of Glen Croe</p><br>
<p>Carrick Castle</p><br>
<p>Ardlui (Northern and Eastern Gateway alongside Arrochar and Tarbet</p><br>
<h2>Lochs of the Arrochar Alps</h2><br>
<p>Loch Goil (Heart of the range)</p><br>
<p>Loch Restil</p><br>
<p>Loch Long</p><br>
<p>Loch Lomond</p><br>
<p>Loch Sloy</p><br>
<p>Loch Fyne</p><br>
<h2>Glens in the Arrochar Alps</h2><br>
<p>Glenbranter (Parly)</p><br>
<p>Hell&#39;s Glen</p><br>
<p>Glen Kinglas</p><br>
<p>Glen Croe</p><br>
<p>Glen Loin</p><br>
<p>Tarbet</p><br>
<p>Glen Falloch</p><br>
<p>Glen Fyne</p><br>
<h2>Parks in the Arrochar Alps</h2><br>
<p>Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park</p><br>
<p>Argyll Forest Park</p><br>
<p>Cowal</p><br>
<p>Ardgoil Peninsula</p><br>
<p>The Cloyne Court Hotel, often referred to simply as Cloyne, is one of the houses of the Berkeley Student Cooperative , a student housing cooperative in Berkeley, California. It is located at the north side of the University of California, Berkeley campus at 2600 Ridge Road, near Soda Hall, Jacobs Hall, and Goldman School of Public Policy.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Cloyne is the largest house in the BSC, itself the largest housing co-op organization in North America, housing 140 UC Berkeley students, mostly undergraduates. Despite its size the house is student-run and student-governed. Members contribute 5 hours of workshift per week each for various tasks needed for the operation of the house: cooking, cleaning, house maintenance, gardening, etc. Since July 2005, a facility manager employed by students lives on the premises to help with day-to-day operations of the house. Every weekday and on Sundays members cook a communal dinner, and on Saturdays there is a communal brunch. Houses council, houses governing body where all members democratically make decisions pertaining the house, meets every Sunday.</p><br>
<p>Similar to other BSC houses it has a specific theme and culture. It has been academic themed and substance-free since 2014. As part of the theme it has an increased number of study rooms, a library, a makerspace/hackerspace (a rare case where members can both hack and live in the same building), and many lectures given by guest lecturers and members themselves. A common practice is also informal visits of UC Berkeley professors at communal dinners, allowing members to get to know them also through a less formal setting. Cloyne is substance-free. Possession and use of controlled substances is not allowed on premises. Similar to other BSC houses, students who prefer such environment choose to live in the house when selecting between all BSC houses.</p><br>
<p>In the past, Cloyne has played a notable role in the Bay Area music scene. The bands No Doubt, Operation Ivy, The Offspring, Rancid, Green Day, Primus, Elliott Smith, 24-7 Spyz, Save Ferris, Skankin&#39; Pickle, The Mr. T Experience, Two Gallants, Blüchunks and Rilo Kiley played at Cloyne before becoming well known. The house has also been host to several lesser-known bands during its many events. Cloyne has hosted as many as a dozen bands in a single evening, commonly using 2 separate stages, though sometimes as many as 4: the dining room, the lib-ed room, the basement, and the courtyard.</p><br>
<p>Cloyne is known for its murals covering many of its internal walls. Murals have been made through years by members residing in the house.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cloyne Court was named after Cloyne, the village in Ireland where George Berkeley was bishop.</p><br>
<p>Cloyne was built in 1904 for $80,000 by the University Land and Improvement Company, which included several University professors, University benefactresses Phoebe Apperson Hearst and Jane K. Sather, future Regent James K. Moffit, Dr. Louis Lisser, John L. Howard, Warren Olney, Dr. Kasper Pishel, Louis Titus, John Galen Howard, the architect of the building and James M. Pierce, the later owner of the hotel. The building, described as a "high-class, modern apartment house," originally contained 32 suites, each with bath, that were not connected by common hallways, but rather were paired onto private stairways to the first floor public areas. Each section was separated by heavy brick firewalls with automatic fireproof doors and each suite was wired for telephone. In 1911, the music room (today called lib-ed room) was added to the building, directly opposite the main entrance, which hosted numerous lectures and music recitals.</p><br>
<p>The building was one of a rare few to survive the devastating 1923 Berkeley fire, remarkable also because the building is made out of redwood and all of the buildings had (and still have) wood shake siding and roofs.</p><br>
<p>Pierce and his family managed the hotel from its opening in 1904 until 1914, when they purchased it from the investors. The family continued operating the hotel until it was sold in 1946.</p><br>
<p>The services and hospitality at Cloyne Court were always highly complimented by the many visitors who had the pleasure of staying at the hotel. Registered compliments in the hotel guest book include:</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court - Silence and peace in an insane world. - Ernest Bloch, 1944</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court, a haven and a place where the gentle art of hospitality is made manifest to the unknown stranger as well as to the great ones of our day. - Mary Lambert, 1942</p><br>
<p>Giving people a happy home is a divine service. - Benjamin Ide Wheeler, 1923</p><br>
<p>I came a stranger, stayed a guest and departed a friend. - unknown</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court was sold by the Pierce family in 1946 to the University Students&#39; Cooperative Association (today BSC) for $125,000. That year, fifteen men occupied the new co-op house alongside the previous residents, whom the USCA had agreed to not displace but rather to allow to continue to live in the former residential hotel. Cloyne originally housed all men who often held dances and dined with the women of nearby Stebbins Hall and Hoyt Hall, both all-female co-ops at the time. In 1972, Cloyne Court became a co-ed house.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the USCA was forced to sell the property to the Regents of the University of California, upon the threat of an eminent domain acquisition by the University, in exchange for a peppercorn lease, most recently renewed in July 2005.</p><br>
<p>On December 21, 2008, Cloyne Court was closed temporarily for earthquake renovations. It reopened at the beginning of the Fall 2009 semester.</p><br>
<p>The building is one of fifty-six buildings in Berkeley listed in the National Register of Historic Places as well as a City of Berkeley Landmark.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural shift</h3><br>
<p>In the past, Cloyne has been known for its party and rules-free culture. This has become a problem for the whole organization when in 2010 John Gibson, then a 21-year-old resident of the house, suffered extensive brain damage and lapsed into a coma, reportedly as a result of a cocaine overdose, in his room. A lawsuit followed his hospitalization, his family claiming his fellow housemates failed to call 911 in time to assist him. The BSC settled with his family with the agreement that Cloyne would dramatically change. Prior members were forced to leave, but one member was allowed to stay after appeal. Beginning in Fall 2014 the house became substance-free and academic themed.</p><br>
<p>Rosie the Riveter/World War II Home Front National Historical Park is a United States national historical park located in Richmond, California, near San Francisco. The park preserves and interprets the legacy of the United States home front during World War II, including the Kaiser Richmond Shipyards, the Victory ship SS Red Oak Victory, a tank factory, housing developments and other facilities built to support America&#39;s entry into World War II. In particular, the role of women and African-Americans in war industries is explored and honored.</p><br>
<p>The park is a "partnership park", meaning that no land or buildings are actually owned by the National Park Service, which only administers the park. This relatively new National Park was established in 2000 and is still under development. Bus tours of the park began in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Park attractions</h2><br>
<p>The park has a visitor center in the restored Ford Building, with a number of permanent and temporary exhibits about the history of Richmond&#39;s wartime industries and workers. A film also illustrates the home-front battle. Rangers are available to answer questions, and also lead guided tours and conduct other interpretive programs.</p><br>
<p>A self-guided auto tour with optional walking tour is available for downloading. In the summer of 2007 preliminary bus tours were begun with a new guideless model, which instead filled half of the bus with residents who spoke of their experiences from the time to put what are otherwise everyday streets for residents into a greater historical perspective.</p><br>
<p>The Rosie the Riveter Memorial in Marina Bay Park is open year round, dawn to dusk, as are the other Richmond city parks within the National Park&#39;s boundaries.</p><br>
<h3>Rosie Memorial</h3><br>
<p>The park&#39;s creation was spurred by the construction of a Rosie the Riveter memorial in a city shoreline park (three years prior to the creation of the national park), to honor the "Rosies", women who made up much of the workforce at the shipyards. The four Richmond shipyards, with their combined 27 shipways, produced 747 ships, more than any other shipyard complex in the country. Richmond was home to 56 different war industries, more than any other city of its size in the United States. The city grew nearly overnight from 24,000 people to 100,000 people, overwhelming the available housing stock, roads, schools, businesses and community services.</p><br>
<p>The effort behind the memorial was initiated by then-Councilwoman Donna Powers. It grew under Project Director Donna Graves to become the first national tribute to home front American women.</p><br>
<p>The memorial is located at Marina Bay Park, the site of former Kaiser Richmond Shipyard #2. It is the length of a Liberty ship with a form of the ship being built. The simple metal pier represents the stern at the waters edge, a simple cylinder frame is the smoke stack, and the bow is made of prefabricated parts similar to those assembled by the shipyard workers. A timeline of World War II is placed along the walkway running the length of the memorial. Interpretive panels within the structures present information on womens history, labor history, and the home front.</p><br>
<h3>Ford Richmond Plant</h3><br>
<p>The Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant was the largest assembly plant to be built on the West Coast. One of only three tank depots in the entire country, approximately 49,000 jeeps were assembled and 91,000 other military vehicles were processed here. Ford employed thousands of workers at the site during World War II, many of them women who were entering the work force for the first time. "Rosie the Riveter" was a period song representing these women.</p><br>
<p>In mobilizing the wartime production effort to its full potential, Federal military authorities and private industry began to work closely together on a scale never seen before in American history. This laid the groundwork for what became known as the "military-industrial complex" during the Cold War years.</p><br>
<p>Noted architect Albert Kahn is credited with the design of the Ford plant in Richmond. After World War II, Ford moved its Northern California factory to Milpitas, where it became known as the San Jose Assembly Plant.</p><br>
<p>The plant building has been restored and now houses a variety of private businesses along with the NPS visitor center.</p><br>
<h3>Richmond Shipyards</h3><br>
<p>The four Richmond Shipyards were part of the Kaiser Shipyards. The construction of 747 ships during the war here is a feat not equaled anywhere else in the world, before or since. The park&#39;s Rosie memorial is located on the former grounds of Shipyard No.2. Shipyard No.3 is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Both Liberty and Victory ships were constructed here. These ships were completed in two-thirds the amount of time and at a quarter of the cost of the average of all other shipyards. The SS Robert E. Peary was assembled in less than five days as a part of a special competition among shipyards; but by 1944 it was only taking the astonishingly brief time of a little over two weeks to assemble a Liberty ship by standard methods.</p><br>
<h3>SS Red Oak Victory</h3><br>
<p>The SS Red Oak Victory is a Victory ship preserved as a museum ship. It was one of 414 Victories built during World War II (constructed at the Richmond Shipyards), but one of only a few of these ships to be transferred from the Merchant Marine to the USA Navy. The vessel issued cargo and munitions to various ships in the fleet throughout 1945. During a hazardous tour of duty in the Pacific, SS Red Oak Victory handled many tons of ammunition, supplying the fleet without a single casualty.</p><br>
<h3>Atchison Village Housing Project</h3><br>
<p>The huge explosion of workers coming to live in cities like Richmond, caused intense strain on city infrastructure. One of these strains was the severe lack of housing. Workers arriving in these rapidly expanding urban centers were forced to find what they could. They slept in all night movie houses, shared "hot beds" (i.e. when one person got in bed, it was still hot from the last person getting out), or just camped out.</p><br>
<p>Atchison Village Housing Project is an example of the local-Federal collaboration that provided much needed housing and domestic support for defense workers and their families. The modest, wood-frame buildings clearly reflect the constraints (time, money and materials) placed on publicly funded housing construction during the period. Just prior to and during the war, the Lanham Act of 1940 provided $150 million to the Works Progress Administration, which built approximately 625,000 units of housing in conjunction with local authorities nationwide. These were highly sought after and company managers were the most likely to be able to procure housing in Atchison Village.</p><br>
<p>Due to racial discrimination, minorities fared very poorly in gaining housing. They often lived in shacks, in the crates that brought the raw materials to the city, in trailers, or in automobiles. They and other lower income earning workers were lucky when they were able to move to barrack-like dormitories constructed for the mass of World War II workers.</p><br>
<p>The Richmond Housing Authority was selected to be the first authority in the country to manage a defense project. Atchison Village represents one of 20 public housing projects built in Richmond before and during World War II. Constructed in 1941 as Richmond&#39;s first public defense housing project, it is the only project funded by the Lanham Act that still exists in Richmond, and one of the few in the nation not destroyed after the war.</p><br>
<p>Today, Atchison Village is a collection of privately owned houses managed by a cooperative of the homeowners. While most of the dormitories and other low income housing of World War II are gone, Atchison Village, built as permanent housing, remains.</p><br>
<h3>Kaiser Richmond Field Hospital</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the invasion of Europe in June 1944, more Americans were dying in Home Front accidents than on World War II battlefields. Henry J. Kaiser, founder of the Richmond Shipyards, recognized that only a healthy work force could meet his deadlines and construction needs. He institutionalized a revolutionary idea, pre-paid medical care for workers, which soon expanded beyond workers. For many workers, this was the first time they had seen a doctor.</p><br>
<p>The Kaiser Richmond Field Hospital for the Richmond Shipyards was financed by the USA Maritime Commission, and opened on August 10, 1942.</p><br>
<p>By August 1944, 92.2 percent of all Richmond shipyard employees had joined the plan, the first voluntary group plan in the country to feature group medical practice, prepayment and substantial medical facilities on such a large scale.By 1990, Kaiser Permanente was still the country&#39;s largest nonprofit HMO.</p><br>
<p>In part due to wartime materials rationing, the Field Hospital is a single-story wood frame structure designed in a simple modernist mode. The Field Hospital operated as a Kaiser Permanente hospital until closing in 1995, after a new hospital was built downtown.</p><br>
<h3>Maritime and Ruth Powers Child Development Centers</h3><br>
<p>The Maritime and Ruth Powers Child Development Centers were two of approximately 35 nursery school units of varying sizes established in the Richmond area during World War II in order to provide child care for women working in the Kaiser shipyards. The Maritime center was funded and constructed by the Maritime Commission as part of a larger development that also included housing, an elementary school and a fire station. The temporary housing was demolished after the war but a larger permanent housing complex remains as do the other buildings.</p><br>
<p>The Maritime Child Development Center, a wood frame, modernist style building operated by the Richmond School District, incorporated progressive educational programming, and was staffed with nutritionists, psychiatrists and certified teachers. It had a capacity of 180 children per day. At its peak, with 24,500 women on the Kaiser payroll, Richmond&#39;s citywide child care program maintained a total daily attendance of 1,400 children. Unlike the federally funded WPA day care facilities implemented during the New Deal, the World War II centers were not intended for use by the destitute, but for working mothers.</p><br>
<p>The Kaiser-sponsored Child Care Centers, particularly those at Kaiser&#39;s industrial sites in Vanport, Oregon, and Vancouver, Washington, gained a reputation for innovative and high quality child care. The center is still in operation today.</p><br>
<h3>Lucretia Edwards Shoreline Park</h3><br>
<p>Lucretia Edwards Shoreline Park, named in honor of local community activist Lucretia W. Edwards, honors the wartime contributions made by the Bay Area Shipyards during World War II.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the local Richmond Shipyards, shipworker&#39;s bootprints with plaques set in the sidewalks and long low seating walls point visitors to the other Bay Area shipyards.</p><br>
<p>The following inscriptions are engraved into the concrete walls:</p><br>
<p>Bethlehem San Francisco – The only privately owned shipyard in the nation to operate a submarine repair base, this 16th Street yard overhauled 31 subs in two years.</p><br>
<p>Moore Dry Dock handled the difficult jobs of production, repair and conversion that slowed overall output in other yards.</p><br>
<p>Hunter Point Naval Dry Dock – Hunter Point repaired 600 fighting and support ships.</p><br>
<p>Mare Island Naval Shipyard – Mare Island built more than 400 vessels. Mare Island Naval Shipyard set a shipbuilding record for a destroyer that was never broken completing the USS Ward in just 17 days.</p><br>
<p>Marinship – The 75,000 Americans who poured into Marinship during the war years build 93 ships.</p><br>
<p>Resolution Island or Tau Moana  is the largest island in the Fiordland region of southwest New Zealand, covering a total of 208 km&sup2;. It is the country&#39;s seventh largest island, and the second largest uninhabited island. Resolution Island is separated from the mainland of the South Island by Dusky Sound and Breaksea Sound. The island is part of the Fiordland National Park.</p><br>
<p>The island is roughly rectangular, with the exception of a long narrow peninsula on the west coast known as Five Fingers Peninsula: an area protected by the Taumoana (Five Fingers Peninsula) Marine Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The island is named after Capt. James Cooks ship Resolution which landed here on Dusky Sound during Cooks Second Voyage in March 1773.</p><br>
<p>The island was chosen in 2004 to be one of New Zealand&#39;s offshore reserves, which are cleared of introduced species to protect native species. This follows a much earlier episode, in 1894, when the Department of Lands and Survey appointed Richard Henry as curator of the island, which was stocked with species such as kakapo and kiwi that were threatened by mustelids on the mainland. This early attempt at using the island for conservation management failed when stoats reached the island in 1900.</p><br>
<p>On 15 July 2009, Resolution island was at the epicenter of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The island is an important sanctuary, not only because it has never been colonised by possums, but also because it contains much ecological diversity in habitats ranging from wetlands to forests to alpine areas, with the highest mountains on the island reaching around 1,000 m. The most widespread forest type on the island is beech-broadleaved forest, while the alpine areas comprise mainly tussock, but also wetlands and tarns. Over 400 indigenous species have been recorded on the island, which is considerably more than on the surrounding mainland. Among the plants are six endangered species, such as several types of endemic mistletoe, and over a dozen nationally uncommon species. Many of these plants suffer elsewhere in Fiordland from browsing by possums.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The only introduced mammals on the island are stoats, red deer and mice. Ongoing stoat and rat control since 2008 allows the island to be used as a sanctuary for threatened bird species such as the mōhua (yellowhead) and tieke (saddleback). Many other native bird species can be found on the island, including kārearea (New Zealand falcon), kākā, kea, and kiwi.</p><br>
<p>Berwick Forest is a large Pinus radiata  plantation at Berwick in New Zealand, around 40 km west of Dunedin. The forest lies close to the banks of the Waipori River immediately below and around the western end of Lake Mahinerangi, and consists of three blocks - the main block, Maungatua, and Waitahuna, with a total area of 13,141 hectares. The land is owned by Otago Land Company, a sub company of Boston-based investment company GMO LLC, the trees by Wenita Forest Products, which has shareholders Sinotrans , the Chinese shipping company, and GMO.</p><br>
<p>The forest is popular with hunters from Otago, with both deer and wild pigs that have escaped from farms as common prey.</p><br>
<p>The forest was subject to a large forest fire in the late 1990s that destroyed several square kilometres of trees, and caused NZ$12 million (US$7 million) worth of damage. The cause of the fire was thought to have been sunlight shining though discarded glass.</p><br>
<p>The Eglinton River is located in the region of Southland in the southwest of New Zealand. It flows through Fiordland National Park for 50 km. Its headwaters are at Lake Gunn, 25 km east of Milford Sound, and it flows generally south before entering Lake Te Anau along the lake&#39;s eastern shore opposite the entrance to North Fiord.</p><br>
<p>For much of its length the Eglinton is accompanied by the only road in the region, State Highway 94 from Te Anau to Milford Sound. The southern end of the Milford Track is located close to the Eglinton River.</p><br>
<p>The first Europeans to explore the river were David McKellar and George Gunn, in 1861. The river was named after Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton by James McKerrow, an Otago surveyor. The road which is now Highway 94 was built in 1935, opening up the valley to visitors.</p><br>
<p>The river flow is small leaving Lake Gunn but is greatly increased by Cascade Creek, which joins it just south of the lake. There are short gorges between Lake Gunn and Cascade Creek, and below the junction with Walker Creek. While the river has been kayaked from Cascade Creek, there is not usually sufficient water at this point and whitewater kayaking is more common from the junction with the East Branch. Rainbow and brown trout are available in the river up to Cascade Creek. Deer are hunted throughout the area, and wild pigs can be found near the river mouth.</p><br>
<p>South Stack  is an island situated just off Holy Island on the northwest coast of Anglesey.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>South Stack is famous as the location of one of Wales&#39; most spectacular lighthouses, South Stack Lighthouse. It has a height of 41 metres (135 feet). It has a maximum area of 7 acres.</p><br>
<p>Until 1828 when an iron suspension bridge was built, the only means of crossing the deep water channel on to the island was in a basket which was suspended on a hemp cable. The suspension bridge was replaced in 1964, but by 1983 the bridge had to be closed to the public, due to safety reasons. A new aluminium bridge was built and the lighthouse was reopened for public visits in 1997. Thousands of people flock to the lighthouse every year, thanks to the continued public transport service from Holyhead&#39;s town centre.</p><br>
<p>There are over 390 stone steps down to the footbridge, and 10 metal steps (and not, as local legend suggests, 365), and the descent and ascent provide an opportunity to see some of the 8,000 nesting birds that line the cliffs during the breeding season. The cliffs are part of the RSPB South Stack Cliffs bird reserve, with a visitor centre, and bird hide at Elin&#39;s Tower.</p><br>
<p>The tower provides a place to see Choughs, Peregrine falcon, Kestrel and various marine mammals like the Harbour porpoise seen at high tide, Grey seal, Risso&#39;s dolphin and Bottlenose dolphin.</p><br>
<p>The Anglesey Coastal Path passes South Stack, as does the Cybi Circular Walk. The latter has long and short variants; the short walk is 4 miles long and takes around two hours to complete. Travelling from the Breakwater Country Park, other sites along the way are the North Stack Fog Signal station, Caer y Tŵr, Holyhead Mountain and Tŷ Mawr Hut Circles.</p><br>
<p>The South Stack Formation was chosen as one of the top 100 geosites in the United Kingdom by the Geological Society of London, for its display of small-scale folding.</p><br>
<h2>In culture</h2><br>
<h3>''Siren'' cover shot</h3><br>
<p>The cover photo for Roxy Music&#39;s Siren album was taken directly below the central span of the bridge on a slope on the south side, by Graham Hughes in August 1975.</p><br>
<h3>''Les Gardiens des Enfers''</h3><br>
<p>In 2010 a French comic entitled Les Gardiens des Enfers ("The Guardians of Hell") was published. Its story is mainly set in South Stack lighthouse in 1859. The cover and the first pages can be seen on the publisher&#39;s website.</p><br>
<p>Great End is the most northerly mountain in the Scafell chain, in the English Lake District. From the south it is simply a lump continuing this chain.</p><br>
<p>From the north, however, it appears as an immense mountain, with an imposing north face rising above Sprinkling Tarn (lake). This is a popular location for wild camping, and the north face attracts many climbers.</p><br>
<p>Alfred Wainwright wrote of Great End in his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells:</p><br>
<p>"This is the true Lakeland of the fellwalker, the sort of terrain that calls him back time after time, the sort of memory that haunts his long winter exile. It is not the pretty places - the flowery lanes of Grasmere or Derwentwater&#39;s wooded bays - that keep him restless in his bed; it is the magnificent ones. Places like Great End..."</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The imposing north-eastern cliffs, riven by gullies, rise some 600 ft from the Esk Hause path. Their orientation ensures that the sun rarely reaches them, the gullies often retaining snow well into the spring. From the left when viewed from below the principal fissures are South East Gully, Central Gully and Cust&#39;s Gully (see below). To the west of the cliffs a ridge descends more gradually in the general direction of Sty Head. This is known as The Band, and it too sports a harsh gash across its features. On the western side of The Band is the deep ravine of Skew Gill, a tributary of Wasdale-bound Lingmell Beck. At the base of The Band the ridge continues as the complex top of Seathwaite Fell, replete with numerous tarns. The largest is Sprinkling Tarn with its beautifully indented shoreline providing perfect foreground for views of the cliff.</p><br>
<p>Sty Head is one of the focal points of the District for walkers. The name strictly applies to the col between Great End and Great Gable at a height of 1,560 ft, but is now more generally given to the path which crosses it. This connects two of the most popular starting points for walks in the high fells, Wasdale Head and Seathwaite. Sty Head is also a walker&#39;s crossroads with other paths leading direct up Great Gable and following the outflow of Sprinkling Tarn up to Esk Hause.</p><br>
<p>Westward from the summit Great End makes a rocky descent toward the arms of Lingmell Beck. This flank is crossed by the Corridor Route, the popular path to Scafell Pike from Sty Head. Above the path are the subsidiary top of Round How (a Nuttall) and the tiny, beautifully clear tarn of Lambfoot Dub.</p><br>
<p>The southward ridge to the Scafells crosses a shallow saddle and then climbs over Ill Crag and Broad Crag, a well blazoned path leading across the stony terrain to the summit of Scafell Pike. To the east of the first depression is Calf Cove, its easy slopes leading down to Esk Hause.</p><br>
<p>The summit has two cairns of very similar height, that to the north-west being nearer to the cliff edge and having the better view. Northwards along Borrowdale the vista is unsurpassed, but the whole panorama is excellent. The heads of the gullies can also be approached for startling views down the face.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The summit is formed by the laminated volcaniclastic claystone and siltstone of the Esk Pike Formation overlying the dacitic welded lapilli-tuff of the Lincomb Tarns Formation. The latter is revealed in the great north front.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Great End may be ascended from Sty Head Tarn via The Band (not to be confused with the more famous Band on Bowfell), from Wasdale Head along Lingmell Gill and Spouthead Gill, from Borrowdale via Grains Gill, from Great Langdale via Rossett Gill and Esk Hause, or from Eskdale. As an intermediate objective Great End may easily be climbed from the main path between Esk Hause and Scafell Pike, requiring only a detour of some 400 m.</p><br>
<h2>Cust's Gully</h2><br>
<p>Custs Gully at the western end of Great Ends cliffs is named after 19th-century pioneer climber and sketcher Arthur Cust, a classical scholar from Yorkshire also known for his watercolour sketches of the Matterhorn and Mont Blanc. Custs Gully is a Grade 1 rock climb, but a difficult obstacle for walkers ascending from Sprinkling Tarn. Custs first winter ascent of the gully was recorded in 1880, although he is thought to have ascended it earlier.</p><br>
<p>Catstye Cam is a fell in the English Lake District. It is an outlier of Helvellyn in the Eastern Fells.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the fell is also given as Catstycam, a spelling preferred by Alfred Wainwright in his influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells. A third variant, Catchedicam, is also quoted by him. Other guidebooks such as Collins Landranger and Birkett follow Wainwright with Catstycam, although the maps of the Ordnance Survey always use Catstye Cam.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Helvellyn range runs broadly north to south for about 7 miles, remaining above 2,000 ft (600 m) throughout its length. Helvellyn itself sits near the centre of this ridge and displays the characteristic form of many of these fells, namely smooth grassy slopes to the west and shattered rock to the east. Helvellyn sends out two eastward arêtes, razor-thin ridges between deep mountain corries. The southerly spur is Striding Edge, easily the most famous ridge in the district, and its northern partner is Swirral Edge. From the summit plateau of Helvellyn a rough slope drops to the start of Swirral Edge, and this narrow ridge curves gracefully down and then back up over half a mile, terminating at Catstye Cam.</p><br>
<p>Taking on the classic mountain shape of a pyramid, Catstye Cam draws the eye in any view where the overtopping bulk of Helvellyn is hidden behind. As Wainwright said "If Catstycam stood alone, remote from its fellows, it would be one of the finest peaks in Lakeland. It has nearly, but not quite, the perfect mountain form with true simplicity in its soaring lines, and a small pointed top, a real summit that falls away on all sides". Even with the connection to Helvellyn, Catstye Cam still has a prominence of over 200 ft due to the pronounced bow of Swirral Edge. High Spying How on Striding Edge, by comparison, is nothing but a rock turret, an independent peak in almost no-one&#39;s estimation.</p><br>
<p>South of Catstye Cam, nestling between the encircling arms of Helvellyn&#39;s two edges, is Red Tarn. This pool is named for the colour of the surrounding screes rather than its water, and contains brown trout and schelly, a fresh-water herring. The depth of Red Tarn is now about 80 ft, although in the mid-19th century it was dammed with boulders to increase capacity. This was carried out to provide additional water to the Greenside Mine in Glenridding, the water race still visible as it crosses the slope of Birkhouse Moor.</p><br>
<p>A second tarn once existed in Brown Cove to the north at Catstye Cam, but this is now reduced to a couple of small pools widening the stream. Brown Cove Tarn was another creation of the Greenside mine, a stone faced dam being built in about 1860. The dam is still in place but water now leaks through the base, the extended tarn-bed a smooth patch of luxuriant turf. A water leat passing beneath the north face of Catstye Cam to Red Tarn Beck can still be traced although it is now in ruins. Water from Brown Cove and Red Tarn unites at the base of the east ridge to form Glenridding Beck, flowing on through the village to Ullswater.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The principal rock type is the dacitic lapilli-tuff of the Helvellyn Formation.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of Catstye Cam is small and neat, bearing only a tiny cairn. The view is extensive and even the looming Helvellyn only adds to the drama by showing its eastern face in close detail. Striding Edge is also seen in profile across Red Tarn, lines of pilgrims frequently queueing at the bottlenecks. By contrast Catstye Cam is often almost completely deserted.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Catstye Cam is normally climbed from Glenridding, either by its east or north west ridges. Both are steep, but there are no technical difficulties. A fair path also climbs via Red Tarn to the midpoint of Swirral Edge, from where a brief detour back to the summit can be made. By far the best option is a circular tour via Striding and Swirral Edges. This takes in Birkhouse Moor, Helvellyn and Catstye Cam, one of the most breathtaking walks in the country.</p><br>
<p>Blencathra, also known as Saddleback, is one of the most northerly hills in the English Lake District. It has six separate fell tops, of which the highest is the Hallsfell Top at 2,848 feet .</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>For many years, Ordnance Survey listed Blencathra under the alternative name of Saddleback, which was coined in reference to the shape of the mountain when seen from the east. The guidebook author Alfred Wainwright popularised the use of the older Cumbric name, which is now used almost exclusively. Ordnance Survey currently marks the summit as ‘Saddleback or Blencathra’.</p><br>
<p>It is likely that the name Blencathra is derived from the Cumbric elements *blain ‘top, summit’ and cadeir ‘seat, chair’, meaning ‘the summit of the seat-like mountain’.</p><br>
<p>The semantics of Cumbric *cadeir and its occurrence in Blencathra are discussed by Andrew Breeze has proposed an alternative interpretation of the second element of the name, arguing that it represents a Cumbric cognate of Middle Welsh carthwr ‘working horse’.</p><br>
<p>He writes, ‘Perhaps the dipping ridgeline made them think of a creature aged by labour, and not a frisky colt or proud hunter, which would have firmer backs.’ Richard Coates has suggested that the second element may be the Middle Irish personal name Carthach, but writes that ‘the implications of that with a Brittonic generic need exploring’.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Northern Fells make up a roughly circular upland area about 10 mi wide. At the centre is the marshy depression of Skiddaw Forest &mdash; a treeless plateau at an altitude of 1,300 ft (396 m.) &mdash; and flowing outward from here are the rivers which divide the area into three sectors. The southeastern sector, between the Glenderaterra Beck and the River Caldew, contains Blencathra and its satellites.</p><br>
<p>Blencathra is more of a small range than a single fell, a series of tops standing out on a curving ridge 3 miles (5 kilometres) long. It has smooth, easy slopes to the north and west, whilst displaying a complex system of rocky spurs and scree slopes to the south and east.</p><br>
<p>When viewed from the southeast, particularly on the main Keswick to Penrith road, Blencathra appears almost symmetrical. To left and right, the ends of the fell rise from the surrounding lowlands in smooth and sweeping curves, clad in rough grass. Each rises gracefully to a ridge-top summit, Blease Fell on the west and Scales Fell to the east. Between these ‘book-ends’ are a further three tops, Gategill Fell, Hallsfell and Doddick Fell, giving a scalloped profile to the ridge.</p><br>
<p>From each of the three central tops, a spur runs out at right angles to the main ridge, beginning as a narrow, rocky arête and then widening into a broad buttress which falls 2,000 ft to the base of the fell. Separating the five tops are four streams which run down the south-east face between the spurs. From the west these are Blease Gill, Gate Gill, Doddick Gill and Scaley Beck.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the spurs on the southeast face, Hallsfell also throws out a high ridge to the north. This is the saddle that gives Blencathra its alternative name, rising beyond the dip to the sixth top, Atkinson Pike. This is the focal point for connecting ridges to Bannerdale Crags and Mungrisdale Common to the north. The ‘saddle’ is bounded by crags to the east, Tarn Crag and Foule Crag being the principal faces.</p><br>
<h2>Sharp Edge</h2><br>
<p>Between Tarn Crag and Foule Crag is Sharp Edge, an aptly named arête which provides one of the most famous scrambles in the area. Hiker and author Alfred Wainwright noted that: ‘The crest itself is sharp enough for shaving (the former name was razor edge) and can be traversed only à cheval at some risk of damage to tender parts.’</p><br>
<p>Below Tarn Crags is Scales Tarn, an almost circular waterbody filling a corrie. The bed plunges steeply to about 25 ft and plants and fish are scarce.</p><br>
<p>To the east, beyond Scales Fell, is the connection to Souther Fell at Mousthwaite Comb. This ridge continues north-east to the vicinity of Mungrisdale, surrounded on all sides by the River Glenderamackin.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>In common with much of the Northern Fells, the Kirk Stile Formation of the Skiddaw Group predominates. This is composed of laminated mudstone and siltstone with greywacke sandstone and is of Ordovician age.</p><br>
<p>There has been considerable mining activity beneath the slopes of Blencathra. Threlkeld mine lies at the base of Hallsfell. From 1879 to 1928, it was a profitable venture for the raising of lead and zinc ores and is believed to hold further reserves should the economic situation improve.</p><br>
<p>A small trial working can be seen beside Blease Gill near the 2,000 ft contour. This is believed to have been driven for lead.</p><br>
<p>Saddleback Old Mine had workings near Scales Tarn and at Mousthwaite Comb. The mine was driven for lead but in the 1890s raised mostly limonite. This was marketed unsuccessfully as a pigment and the mine closed in 1894.</p><br>
<p>In the Glenderaterra valley to the west of Blease Fell were Brundholme and Blencathra mines. Lead, copper and baryte were raised between the middle of the 19th century and the final closure in 1920.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The highest point is directly above the Hallsfell spur, marked by a trig point, in the form of a concrete ring. A good path connects the five summits on the main ridge, giving excellent views down the south-east face. Northward on the fine turf of the saddle is a large cross laid out in white stones. Its origin is uncertain, but extension to its current size (in excess of 10 ft) is attributed to a Harold Robinson of Threlkeld, a frequent visitor in the years after the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>The view is very extensive, enhanced in every direction by the sharp fall of the slopes from the summit. To the west is the bulk of Skiddaw, and from west round to north-east the Back o’Skiddaw fells make up the foreground, backed by the mountains of Galloway, the Southern Uplands, the Border hills and the Cheviots.</p><br>
<p>The Pennines form the horizon from north-east to south-east, with Cross Fell, Mickle Fell, Wild Boar Fell and Great Whernside visible. To the south-east are the Far Eastern Fells and to the south the Helvellyn range is seen end-on, with vistas of the Forest of Bowland and North Wales to its left and right respectively.</p><br>
<p>The skyline from south to WSW is the best feature: a serrated skyline of all the major Lakeland peaks, these being, clockwise, Coniston Old Man, Crinkle Crags, Bowfell, Esk Pike, Scafell Pike, Great Gable, Kirk Fell, Pillar, High Stile, Grasmoor and Grisedale Pike. To the right of this, the Isle of Man and the Mourne Mountains are visible on clear days.</p><br>
<p>Derwent Water and Thirlmere are the major lakes visible; the most distant mountain visible is Slieve Meelmore in Mourne, 123 miles (198 kilometres) away.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Blencathra is a popular mountain, and there are many different routes to the summit. One of the most famous is via Sharp Edge, a knife-edged arête on the eastern side of the mountain. Sharp Edge provides some good scrambling for those with a head for heights. Hall’s Fell ridge, on Blencathra’s southern flank, also provides an opportunity for some scrambling, though of a less serious nature. Alfred Wainwright described the ascent from Threlkeld via Hall&#39;s Fell ridge as ‘positively the finest way to any mountain-top in the district’.</p><br>
<p>Wainwright recorded more routes of ascent for Blencathra than any other fell. Blease Fell and Scales Fell provided easy walking on grass and fast routes of descent. Gategill Fell he noted as dull until the final arête is reached, while Hallsfell and Doddick Fell both received praise. Of the intervening gills, Scaley Beck was reckoned the most practicable, the other three being overly rough and devoid of interest. An ascent from ‘behind’, beginning from Mungrisdale, was also described.</p><br>
<h2>Ownership</h2><br>
<p>In May 2014, its owner, Hugh Lowther, 8th Earl of Lonsdale, listed the entire mountain massif plus the Lordship of the Manor of Threlkeld for sale, at a guide price of £1.75 million.</p><br>
<p>A number of offers were soon made for the mountain, and the agent handling the sale suggested that the initial guide price could well be exceeded.</p><br>
<p>A community group, Friends of Blencathra, was set up in response to the announcement of the fell being listed for sale, and began fund-raising in order to make a bid. Mountaineer Sir Chris Bonington, broadcaster Lord Melvyn Bragg and adventurer and television presenter Ben Fogle were among those to voice support for the group&#39;s bid. The National Trust (which owns 21% of the Lake District National Park) also backed the Friends of Blencathra, stating that it would not be placing a bid itself.</p><br>
<p>Eden District Council listed Blencathra as an asset of community value on 7 July 2014, following a nomination by Friends of Blencathra. This was the first time the community asset status had been given to a mountain, and gave the community group more time to secure funding and negotiate with the owner.</p><br>
<p>In November 2015, the community group claimed to be making progress with the sale. Days later, H and H Land & Property, the estate agents handling the sale of Blencathra, announced the mountain was no longer on the market, claiming it would not be available to purchase for an indefinite period of time. On 15 February 2016, Companies House published files confirming Friends of Blencathra had only raised £246,650 of the asking price in its first year of campaigning.</p><br>
<p>Far West, Missouri, was a Latter Day Saint  settlement in Caldwell County, Missouri. Today it is a historic site.</p><br>
<h2>Foundation and early history</h2><br>
<p>The town was founded by Missouri Mormon leaders, W. W. Phelps and John Whitmer in August 1836 shortly before the countys creation. The town was platted originally as a 1 mi square area, centered on a public square which was to house a temple. The design of the town resembled Mormon founder and prophet Joseph Smith Jr.s plan for the City of Zion, which had been planned to be built in the town of Independence, Jackson County, Missouri. As the town of Far West grew, the plat was extended to 4 square miles.</p><br>
<p>Early Latter-day Saints began to settle in northwestern Missouri soon after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints was organized in 1830. According to a revelation given by Joseph Smith Jr., Independence would be the "centerplace" of the City of Zion when Jesus returned. However, disputes between Mormon and Missourian settlers in Independence led to the expulsion of the Mormons from Jackson County in 1833. Most Mormons temporarily settled in Clay County, Missouri. Towards the end of 1836, Caldwell County was created specifically for Mormon settlement to compensate Mormon property losses in Jackson County. Shortly after the creation of Caldwell County, Far West was made the county seat.</p><br>
<p>Far West became the headquarters of the Latter-day Saint movement in early 1838 when Prophet Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon relocated to the town from the previous church headquarters, Kirtland, Ohio. Joseph Smith taught the Latter-day Saints that the Garden of Eden had been in Jackson County and when Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden, they moved to the area now comprising Caldwell and Daviess Counties, Missouri. While headquartered in Far West, the official name of the church was changed from Church of Jesus Christ to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.</p><br>
<h2>Mormon–Missourian conflict of 1838</h2><br>
<p>New problems erupted between the Mormons and their neighbors when the Mormons began to settle in the counties surrounding Caldwell, including De Witt in Carroll County and Adam-ondi-Ahman in Daviess County. A series of escalating conflicts followed and the Governor of Missouri eventually called out 2,500 state militiamen to put down what he alleged to be a "Mormon rebellion." Latter Day Saints poured into Far West for protection and found themselves under siege. Joseph Smith Jr., Sidney Rigdon and others surrendered at the end of October 1838, and were put on trial by the state for treason. The main body of the Mormons were then forced to sign over their property in Far West and Caldwell County to pay for the militia muster and then leave the state. The main body later settled in Nauvoo, Illinois.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath and Far West today</h2><br>
<p>Today Far West is a historic site seven miles (11.26 km) south of USA Route 36 on Route D. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintains a historic site there, including the cornerstones of the planned temple. It also honors the Far West legacy in the name of a ward (located in Cameron), and, since 2015, a stake (centered in Gallatin). Some Latter Day Saints expect that a temple will be located on this spot at some time in the future. The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, has a branch congregation that meets in Far West.</p><br>
<p>In 2004 construction began on a historic village adjacent to the temple site. It is operated by the Far West Historical Society to accommodate and increase tourism. The Country Store has been in operation since 2006. Future plans include overnight housing and conference facilities. The progress of this project indicates a major shift in the growth of the area.</p><br>
<p>On May 2012, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints confirmed that it purchased 6,000 acres of Missouri farmland and three historical sites from the Community of Christ.</p><br>
<p>Mount Ritter is located in the Sierra Nevada, in Madera County of California, in the Western United States. It is in the Ansel Adams Wilderness of the Inyo and Sierra National Forests. Mount Ritter is the 15th highest mountain peak of California.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mount Ritter is made of a strikingly dark rock, and is quite prominent due to its height (over 13,000 ft) and isolation. It is in the middle of the Ritter Range, which includes Banner Peak and the Minarets. The prominent and memorable shape of the Ritter-Banner pair is visible from high elevations far to both north and south along the Sierra Nevada.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is named by Josiah Whitney, chief of the California Geological Survey, for Carl Ritter, who had been a teacher of his when he was a student in Berlin during the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>Suwarrow  is an island in the northern group of the Cook Islands in the south Pacific Ocean. It is about 1,300 km south of the equator and 930 km north-northwest of the capital island of Rarotonga.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Suwarrow is a roughly quadrilateral-shaped coral atoll, 80 km in circumference, with over 20 small islets (motu) surrounding a central lagoon 19 by. Cyclones have often created storm surges which sweep over the atoll since its small component of land is extremely low-lying.</p><br>
<h3>Table of Islets</h3><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although Suwarrow was inhabited by Polynesians during prehistory it was uninhabited when discovered by the Russian-American Company ship Suvorov, which reportedly followed clouds of birds to the atoll on September 17, 1814. (The ship was named after Russian general Alexander Suvorov, who appears as "Suwarrow" in Lord Byrons epic poem Don Juan and also in Alaric Alexander Watts alliterative poem "The Siege of Belgrade".) It has been only intermittently inhabited since. The atolls name has also been spelled variously as Souvorow, Souwaroff, and Souworoff. "Suwarrow" is the official spelling adopted by New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>In April 1890 Robert Louis Stevenson, his wife Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson, and her son Lloyd Osborne were passengers on the trading steamer Janet Nicoll, which called at Suwarrow during a trading cruise around the central Pacific. The journal of Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson was published under the title The Cruise of the Janet Nichol. Jack Buckland was also a passenger on Janet Nicoll; he later returned to Suwarrow to be the island trader.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-19th century (records dispute whether it was in 1848 or 1855), a ship from Tahiti was carrying out salvage work when a box containing NZ$15,000 worth of coins was dug up. Some years later, New Zealander Henry Mair found pieces of eight in a turtle nest. Mair became involved in a dispute, the find was covered up, and it has never been rediscovered.</p><br>
<p>In 1876 the atoll was leased to an Auckland firm who built a wharf, installed a light on a wooden pyramid, and commenced to gather mother of pearl. British sovereignty was proclaimed April 22, 1889. In 1903 the atoll was leased to Lever Brothers, "for the purpose of removing guano or other fertilising substances therefrom, and of planting the land with coconuts, and for collecting pearl-shells, and for other purposes of a like nature." They maintained about thirty persons on the island until a cyclone in 1914 so severely damaged operations that the island was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Robert Dean Frisbie and several coast watchers lived on the largest islet, Anchorage. Frisbie wrote about his experiences in The Island of Desire. In 1942, a cyclone washed away 16 of the 22 islets in the atoll. The coastwatchers left a hut with water tanks behind, and left wild pigs and chickens on the islet. Later, cats were allowed to run wild on Anchorage Island, to control Polynesian rats which were documented to occur there since the island was discovered by Europeans (Jones 2001) but conceivably were introduced by Polynesian seafarers a longer time ago.</p><br>
<p>New Zealander Tom Neale lived alone on Suwarrow for a total of 16 years in three periods between 1952 and 1977. He described his experience in the first two of those periods in An Island to Oneself (1966 ). In 1964, while Neale was in Rarotonga, June von Donop, a former accountant from Honolulu, Hawaii, lived alone in his house on Suwarrow for a week, while her crewmates on the schooner Europe stayed on board their vessel. Michael Swift lived alone on Suwarrow in 1965-66, but he was not familiar with survival techniques and had a hard time finding sufficient food.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the island was declared a National Park of the Cook Islands due to the plentiful marine and bird wild life it supports. The island and surrounding water is Crown land. A proposal to establish an aquaculture operation to farm Tahitian pearls was successfully opposed by Cook Islands environmental NGO the Taporoporo&#39;anga Ipukarea Society.</p><br>
<p>In October 2011, Russian politician Anton Bakov claimed to have purchased the atoll and declared it the capital of a new Russian Empire. The claim was denied by Prime Minister Henry Puna.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna and flora</h2><br>
<p>At the end of the 20th century, 3% of all red-tailed tropicbirds in the world (some 400) bred there, as well as 9% of the global population of the lesser frigatebird (about 8500, though only a part of these seem to be present at any one time).(Jones 2001)</p><br>
<p>Most of the small islets have only herbs and shrubs, with Pemphis acidula and beach heliotrope (Tournefortia argentea) growing in abundance. The larger islands have a dense interior vegetation of Cordia subcordata (tou); indeed, the westernmost island, Motu Tou is named after this woodland, its name literally means "high island".(Jones 2001)</p><br>
<p>Suwarrow has rich marine biodiversity around, which is rich enough to support megafaunas such as sea turtles, sharks and mantas, and cetaceans including humpback, sperm, and false killer whales.</p><br>
<p>Gleinig M.. The Panoramio. Retrieved on April 05, 2017</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Every five years, the Cook Islands government advertises for the Suwarrow island nature reserve caretaker position. The position is manned between April and October by two persons. Previous caretakers have brought their families with them, so the population was significantly higher, but that is not the case today. The barge that brings them also brings six months of supplies such as canned food, and several more rangers that clean the island on the first day and leave the caretakers behind.</p><br>
<p>The only way to visit the island is with a private yacht or by chartered expedition from Rarotonga, and visitors require permits from the park authorities before being permitted to land.</p><br>
<p>Loch Tay  is a freshwater loch in the central highlands of Scotland, in the Perth and Kinross and Stirling council areas. The watershed of Loch Tay traditionally formed the historic province of Breadalbane.</p><br>
<p>It is a long, narrow loch of around 14.55 mi long, and typically around 1 to 1½ miles wide, following the line of the strath from the south west to north east. It is the sixth-largest loch in Scotland by area and over 150 m deep at its deepest.</p><br>
<p>Ben Lawers on its north shore is, at 1,214 m, the tenth-highest mountain in the British Isles, and is the highest peak in a group of seven munros.</p><br>
<p>Killin at the head of the loch, and Kenmore at the outflow of the River Tay, are the main settlements on the lochside today. The smaller settlements of Acharn, Ardeonaig and Ardtalnaig are located on the south side of the loch whilst Fearnan and Lawers are on the north side. The loch is fed by the rivers Dochart and Lochay at its head and numerous smaller streams.</p><br>
<p>The loch is a popular spot for salmon fishing, and many of its surroundings feature in the traditional Scottish Loch Tay Boat Song (Scottish Gaelic, Iorram Loch Tatha).</p><br>
<p>Loch Tay railway station was on the Killin Railway. It is now closed.</p><br>
<p>In ancient times (in the Iron Age) people lived on defensible, man-made islands on the loch, called crannogs. More than 20 submerged crannogs have been identified in the loch. An example has now been reconstructed on the south side of the loch at the Scottish Crannog Centre.</p><br>
<p>The Nashua River, 37.5 mi long, is a tributary of the Merrimack River in Massachusetts and New Hampshire in the United States. It is formed in eastern Worcester County, Massachusetts, by junction of its north and south branches near Lancaster, and flows generally north-northeast past Groton to join the Merrimack at Nashua, New Hampshire. The Nashua River Watershed occupies a major portion of north-central Massachusetts and a much smaller portion of southern New Hampshire.</p><br>
<p>The north branch rises west of Fitchburg and Westminster. It flows about 30 mi generally southeast past Fitchburg, and joins the south branch about 5 mi below its issuance from the Wachusett Reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Nashua River was heavily used for industry during the colonial period and the early United States. During the late 18th century and early 19th century, the heavy concentration of paper mills and the use of dyes near Fitchburg resulted in pollution that notoriously turned the river various colors downstream from the factories.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1960s, Marion Stoddart started a campaign to restore the Nashua River and its tributaries. She built coalitions with labor leaders and business leaders, in particular the paper companies who were the worst polluters of the river. With federal help, eight treatment plants were built or upgraded along the river. A broad conservation buffer was created along about half the river and its two main tributaries. By the early-1990s, most of the industry was still located along the river, but many parts of the river were once again safe for swimming. Her work is the subject of a 30-minute documentary movie.</p><br>
<p>Recovery has sparked recreational use of the river at places like Mine Falls Park in Nashua.</p><br>
<p>The largely volunteer Nashua River Watershed Association, based in Groton, Massachusetts, oversees the condition of the river.</p><br>
<p>On January 23, 2013, Rep. Niki Tsongas introduced the Nashua River Wild and Scenic River Study Act (H.R. 412; 113th Congress), a bill that would amend the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act to designate certain segments concerning the Nashua River for study for potential addition to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.</p><br>
<h2>Watershed</h2><br>
<p>From its impoundment at the Wachusett Reservoir in Clinton, Massachusetts, the South Branch of the Nashua River flows north and joins the North Branch of the Nashua River in Lancaster, Massachusetts. The North Branch of the Nashua River flows southeast from Fitchburg and Leominster, Massachusetts, to Lancaster. The Nashua River flows northward from Lancaster, meandering its way through the north-central Massachusetts towns of Harvard, Groton, Dunstable, and Pepperell, before eventually emptying into the Merrimack River at Nashua, New Hampshire. The Nashua River Watershed has a total drainage area of approximately 538 square miles, with 454 square miles of the watershed occurring in Massachusetts and 74 square miles in New Hampshire. The Nashua River flows for approximately 56 mi, with approximately 46 of those miles (74 km) flowing through Massachusetts. The Squannacook, Nissitissit, Stillwater, Quinapoxet, North Nashua, and South Nashua rivers feed it. The watershed encompasses all or part of 31 communities, 7 in southern New Hampshire and 24 in central Massachusetts. The watershed’s largest water body is the Wachusett Reservoir, which provides drinking water to two-thirds of the Commonwealth&#39;s population.</p><br>
<h3>Major watershed components</h3><br>
<p>*Wachusett Reservoir is the largest water body.</p><br>
<p>**The Stillwater River feeds Wachusett Reservoir from the northwest.</p><br>
<p>**The Quinapoxet River feeds Wachusett Reservoir from the west.</p><br>
<p>*Wachusett Reservoir Dam impounds the Nashua River.</p><br>
<p>* The North Nashua River joins the main river at Lancaster from the northwest.</p><br>
<p>* The Squannacook River joins the Nashua River from the northwest at the junction of the town boundaries of Shirley, Groton, and Ayer.</p><br>
<p>* The Nissitissit River joins the Nashua River from the northwest at Pepperell.</p><br>
<h3>Major tributaries</h3><br>
<p>The Qinling or Qin Mountains, formerly known as the Nanshan  and sometimes called the "Szechuan Alps", are a major east-west mountain range in southern Shaanxi Province, China. The mountains provide a natural boundary between North and South China and support a huge variety of plant and wildlife, some of which is found nowhere else on earth.</p><br>
<p>To the north is the densely populated Wei River valley, an ancient center of Chinese civilization. To the south is the Han River valley. To the west is the line of mountains along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. To the east are the lower Funiu and Dabie Shan which rise out of the coastal plain.</p><br>
<p>The northern side of the range is prone to hot weather, however the physical barrier of the mountains mean that the land to the North has a semi-arid climate, with the lack of rich, fertile landscape that can not support a wealth of wildlife. The mountains also acted as a natural defense against nomadic invasions from the North, as only four passes cross the mountains. In the late 1990s a railway tunnel and a spiral was completed, thereby easing travel across the range.</p><br>
<p>The highest mountain in the range is Mount Taibai at 3,767 m, which is about 100 km west of the ancient Chinese capital of Xi&#39;an and is the highest mountain in eastern China. Mount Hua (2,155 m), Mount Li (1,302 m), and Mount Maiji (1,742 m) make up the three other significant peaks in the range.</p><br>
<h2>Environment, flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The environment of the Qin Mountains is a deciduous forest ecoregion.</p><br>
<p>The Qin Mountains form the watershed between the Yellow River basin of northern China, which was historically home to deciduous broadleaf forests, and the Yangzi River basin of southern China, which has milder winters and more rainfall, and was historically home to warm temperate evergreen broadleaf forests.</p><br>
<p>The low-elevation forests of the foothills are dominated by temperate deciduous trees like oaks (Quercus acutissima, Q. variabilis), elm (Ulmus spp.), common walnut (Juglans regia), maple (Acer spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.) and Celtis spp. Evergreen species of these low-elevation forests include broadleaf chinquapins (Castanopsis sclerophylla), ring-cupped oaks (Quercus glauca) and conifers like Pinus massoniana.</p><br>
<p>At the middle elevations, conifers like Pinus armandii are mixed with broadleaf birch (Betula spp.) oak (Quercus spp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus spp.). From 2,600 to 3,000 m elevation, these mid-elevation forests give way to a subalpine forests of fir (Abies fargesii, A. chensiensis), Cunninghamia, and birch (Betula spp.), with rhododendron (Rhododendron fastigiatum) abundant in the understory.</p><br>
<p>The region is home to a large number of rare plants, of which around 3,000 have so far been documented. Plant and tree species native to the region include Ginkgo, thought to be one of the oldest species of tree in the world, as well as Huashan or Armand pine (Pinus armandii), Huashan shen (Physochlaina infundibularis), Acer miaotaiense and Chinese fir. Timber harvesting reached a peak in the 18th century in the Qinling Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Home to the Qinling pandas, a sub-species of the giant panda, which are protected in the region with the help of the Changqing and Foping nature reserves, between 250 and 280 giant pandas live in the region, which is estimated to represent around a fifth of the entire wild giant panda population. The mountains are also home to the golden takin, golden pheasant, golden snub-nosed monkey, Temminck&#39;s tragopan, crested ibis, golden eagle, blackthroat and clouded leopard.</p><br>
<p>The Chinese giant salamander, at 1.8 m the largest amphibian in the world, is critically endangered as it is collected for food and for use in traditional Chinese medicine. An environmental education programme is being undertaken to encourage sustainable management of wild populations in the Qin Mountains and captive breeding programmes have been set up.</p><br>
